Topics in Electrical and Computer Engineering

Phasors

Douglas Wilhelm Harder

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Waterloo

Copyright © 2008-10 by Douglas Wilhelm Harder. All rights reserved.

 Phasors
Outline
In this topic, we will look at
– The necessary background
– Sums of sinusoidal functions
– The trigonometry involved
– Phasor representation of sinusoids
– Phasor addition
– Why phasors work
– Phasor multiplication and inverses
– Phasors for circuits
 Phasors
Background
Consider any periodic sinusoid with
– Period T = 1/f = 2/
– Frequency f = 1/T = /2
– Angular frequency  = 2f = 2/T
It is possible to write such a sinusoid as
v cos(t + )
where
– v is the amplitude
–  is the phase shift
 v
 Phasors
Background
As v cos(t + + 2) = v cos(t + ), restrict – <  ≤ 

Engineers throw an interesting twist into this formulation

– The frequency term t has units of radians
– The phase shift  has units of degrees: –180° <  ≤ 180°

For example,
V cos(377t + 45°)
V cos(377t – 90°)
 Phasors
Background
A positive phase shift causes the function to lead of 
For example, –sin(t) = cos(t + 90°) leads cos(t) by 90°

Blue peaks first

Compare cos(t) and cos(t + 45°) - Blue is leading
 Phasors
Background
A negative phase shift causes the function to lag by 
For example, sin(t) = cos(t – 90°) lags cos(t) by 90°

Red peaks first

Compare cos(t) and cos(t – 90°) - Blue lags behind
 Phasors
Background
If the phase shift is 180°, the functions are out of phase
E.g., –cos(t) = cos(t – 180°) and cos(t) are out of phase

Compare cos(t) and cos(t – 180°)

 Phasors
Background
Suppose we add a number of sinusoidal voltages with:
– Equal frequencies
– Different amplitudes (voltages) and phase shifts
E.g., 3 cos 377t  75  10 cos 377t  50  4 cos 377t  15 
5 cos 377t  42  12 cos 377t  90

It may not be obvious, but the result will be another

sinusoid of the form

A cos 377t   
 Phasors
Background
These are the five sinusoids and their sum

14.81 cos 377t  3.36 

 Phasors
Derivations (The Hard Way)
We will now show that the sum of two sinusoids with
– The same frequency, and
– Possibly different amplitudes and phase shifts
is a sinusoid with the same frequency

Our derivation will use trigonometric formula familiar to

all high-school students
– Later, we will see how exponentials with complex powers
simplify this observation!
 Phasors
Example Derivation (The Hard Way)
Consider the sum of two sinusoids:

3 cos t   9 2 cos t  45 
Use the rule
cos a  b   cos a cos b  sin a sin b
Thus we expand the terms
9 2 cos t  2   9 2 cos t  cos 45   9 2 sin  t  sin  45 
 9 cos t   9 sin  t 
 Phasors
Example Derivation (The Hard Way)
Therefore
3 cos t   9 2 cost  45   12 cos t   9 sin  t 

We wish to write this as

v cos t     v cos t  cos   v sin  t  sin 

We therefore deduce that

v cos   12
v sin   9
 Phasors
Example Derivation (The Hard Way)
Given
v cos   12
v sin   9
Square both sides and add:
 v cos   2
  v sin    12 2  9 2
2

v 2  cos 2   sin 2    225

2 2
Because cos   sin   1 it follows that
v  225  15
 Phasors
Example Derivation (The Hard Way)
Again, given
v cos   12
v sin   9
Take the ratio:
v sin  9
 tan    0.75
v cos  12

Therefore  ≈ 36.87°
 Phasors
Example Derivation (The Hard Way)
It follows that
3 cos t   9 2 cost  45   15 cost  36.87  
This is independent of the frequency:

2

 5
 Phasors
Full Derivation (The Hard Way)
Consider the sum of two sinusoids:
v1 cos t  1   v2 cos t  2 
Using the rule
cos a  b   cos a cos b  sin a sin b
we can expand
v1 cos  t  j1   v2 cos  t  j 2 
 v1 cos  t  cos  j1   v1 sin  t  sin  j1  
v2 cos  t  cos  j2   v2 sin  t  sin  j2 
 cos  t   v1 cos  j1   v2 cos  j2   
sin  t   v1 sin  j1   v2 sin  j2  
 Phasors
Full Derivation (The Hard Way)
Now, given
v1 cos t  1   v2 cos t  2 
 cos t   v1 cos 1   v2 cos 2    sin  t   v1 sin  1   v2 sin  2  

Suppose we can write this in the form

v cos t   
First, v cos t     v cos t  cos   v sin  t  sin 

v cos    v1 cos 1   v2 cos 2 

and thus
v sin     v1 sin  1   v2 sin  2 
 Phasors
Full Derivation (The Hard Way)
First, given
v cos    v1 cos 1   v 2 cos  2 
v sin     v1 sin  1   v 2 sin   2 
square both sides and add
v 2  v1 2  2v1v 2  cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2   v 2 2

 v  v1 2
 
 2v1v 2 cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2  v 2 2
 Phasors
Full Derivation (The Hard Way)
Similarly, given
v cos    v1 cos 1   v 2 cos  2 
v sin     v1 sin  1   v 2 sin   2 
take the ratio
sin  v1 sin 1  v 2 sin  2
tan   
cos  v1 cos 1  v 2 cos  2

1 
v1 sin 1  v 2 sin  2 
   tan  
 v1 cos 1  v 2 cos  2 
 Phasors
Full Derivation (The Hard Way)
Adding n sinusoids must be done one pair at a time:

v1 cos t  1   v2 cos t  2   v3 cos t  3   

           
v1, 2 cost  1, 2   v3 cos t  3   
                
v1, 2 ,3 cost  1, 2 ,3  
 Phasors
Using Phasors
Rather than dealing with trigonometric identities, there is
a more useful representation: phasors

Assuming  is fixed, associate

v cos t     v
where v is the complex number
with magnitude v and argument 

The value v is a phasor and

is read as vee phase fee
 Phasors
Using Phasors
The addition of sinusoids is equivalent to phasor addition

Function of Time Phasors

n

 v 
n

v k cos t  k  k k
k 1
k 1
complex number
trigonometry addition

v cos t    v
We transform the problem of trigonometric addition
into a simpler problem of complex addition
 Phasors
Using Phasors
Recalling Euler’s identity
v  ve j  v cos   j sin  

Therefore
n n n

 v    v
k 1
k k
k 1
k cos  k  j v
k 1
k sin  k
 Phasors
Using Phasors
Given our motivating example 3 cos t   9 2 cost  45 


– Using phasors: 30  9 245  3  9  9 j

 12  9 j
 1536.87 
– The result is 15 cos t  36.87 

 Phasors
Using Phasors
For example, given our first sum:
3 cos 377t  75  10 cos 377t  50  4 cos 377t  15 
5 cos 377t  42  12 cos 377t  90

Using phasors
 
375  1050  4  15  542  12  90  
75 j 50 j 15 j 42 j 90 j
 3e  10e  4e  5e  3e
 14.78  0.87 j
 14.813.36
we get the sum
14.81 cos 377t  3.36 
 Phasors
Using Phasors
These graphs show:
– The individual phasors
– The sum of the phasors
 Phasors
Using Phasors
A plot of the sum
3 cos 377t  75  10 cos 377t  50  4 cos 377t  15 
5 cos 377t  42  12 cos 377t  90

is identical to a plot of 14.81 cos 377t  3.36 


 Phasors
Why Phasors Work
To understand recall that
ve j  t    v cos t     jv sin  t   
Therefore v cos t      ve 
j  t  

Plot the complex exponential
14.81e  
j 377 t  3.36

The real part:

14.81 cos(t + 3.36°)
The imaginary part:
14.81sin(t + 3.36°)
 Phasors
Why Phasors Work
Note that
v1e j  t 1   v2 e j  t 2   v1e jt e j1  v2 e j t e j2

 v1e j1  v2 e j2 e jt 
  v11  v22  e jt
and because  w  z   w   z , it follows
v1 cos t  1   v2 cos t  2   v1e j  t 1    v2 e j  t 2  
 v1e jt e j1   v2 e j t e j2 
 v1e jt e j1  v2 e jt e j2 
  v11  v2 2  e jt 
 Phasors
Derivation (The Easy Way)
Previously, we used trigonometry to show that the sum
of two sinusoids with the same frequency must continue
to have the same frequency

Using complex exponentials, this becomes obvious

v1e j  t 1 
  v e
2
j  t  2 
   v   v   e 
1 1 2 2
jt
 Phasors
Phasor Multiplication
Multiplication may be performed directly on phasors:
– The product of two phasors r11 and r2 2 is the phasor

 r r  
1 2 1  2 
– For example,

 545    2  60   10  15
  

– This generalizes to products of n phasors:

 r       r     r    r  
1 1 n n 1 n 1      n 
 Phasors
Phasor Multiplication
Calculating the inverse is also straight-forward:
– The inverse of the phasor r is the phasor
1
    
– For example,
r

545   1
 0.2  45
– Using multiplication, we note the product is 1:
 1    1
 r            r         10
 r    r
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
When dealing with alternating currents (AC):
– The generalization of the resistance R is
the complex impedance Z = R + jX
– The generalization of the conductance G is
the complex admittance Y = G + jB

Ohm’s law easily generalizes:

V = IZ

 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
With AC, the linear circuit elements behave like phasors
Inductor with inductance L Z  j L   L�90o
Resistor with resistance R
Z  R0
Capacitor with capacitance C 1 1
Z  � 90o
jC C
– Note that inductance and capacitance
are frequency dependant

We can use this to determine the voltage

across an linear circuit with AC: V = IZ
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
Consider three circuit elements in series:

with
R= 2
L = 50 mH
C = 750 mF

The total impedance is:

1
Z  2�0   0.050�90 
o o
� 90o
• E.g., if   1, it follows that 0.750
Z  2.376� 32.69o
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
If the current across this circuit is I = 10 cos(t) A,

we may compute the voltage:

V  IZ
 10 0o
д�  2.376 32.69o 
 23.76� 32.69o

or V = 23.76 cos(t – 32.69°) V

 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
If the current across this circuit is I = 10 cos(377t) A,

we need to recalculate the impedance:

Z  2�0o  377 �
0.050�90o  0.7501�377 � 90o
Now  18.95�83.94o
V  IZ

д�10 0 o
  18.95 83.94 o

or V = 189.5 cos(377t
189.5� 83.94°)oV
+ 83.94
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
Consider three circuit elements in parallel with
R= 2
L = 50 mH
C = 750 mF
The total admittance is:
1 1 1 1
Y    �90o
Z 2�0  0.050�90  0.750
o o

E.g., if   1, it follows that

Y  0.5�0o  20� 90o  0.75�90o
 18.95� 83.94o
 Z  0.05276�83.94o
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
If the current across this circuit is I = 10 cos(t) A

we may compute the voltage:

V  IZ
 10 0o
д�  0.05276 83.94o 
 0.5276�83.94o
or V = 0.5276 cos(t + 83.94°) V
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
If the current across this circuit is I = 10 cos(377t) A

we need to recalculate the impedance:

1 1 1 1
Y   
o
Z 2�0 377 �
0.050�90 o 1
377�
0.750 �  90 o

 282.7�89.90o
or
Z  0.003537� 89.90o
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
Thus, with the current I = 10 cos(377t) A and
impedance Z  0.003537� 89.90o
we may now calculate
V  IZ

д�10  0 o
  0.003537 89.90o 
 0.03537� 89.90o
or V = 0.03537 cos(377t – 89.90°) V

This should be intuitive, as the capacitor

acts as essentially a short-circuit for high frequency AC
 Phasors
Linear Circuit Elements
A consequence of what we have seen here is that any
linear circuit with alternating current
may be replaced with
– A single resistor, and
– A single complex impedance
• A capacitor or an inductor

R22   2 X 22 R22   2 X 22
R1  ,  X1 
X2 R2
 Phasors
Final Observations
These techniques do not work if the frequencies differ

The choice of 377 in the examples is deliberate:

– North American power is supplied at 60 Hz:
2 60 ≈ 376.99111843
– Relative error: 0.0023%
– European power is supplied at 50 Hz:
2 50 = 100 ≈ 314.159265358
 Phasors
Final Observations
Mathematicians may note the peculiar mix of radians and
degrees in the formula
10 cos 377t  50
Justification:
– The phase shifts are 180° or less ( radians or less)
– Which shifts are easier to visualize?
120° 2.094 rad or 2/3 rad
60° 1.047 rad or /3 rad
45° 0.785 rad or /4 rad
30° 0.524 rad or /6 rad
– Is it obvious that 2.094 rad and 0.524 rad are orthogonal?
– Three-phase power requires the third roots of unity:
• These cannot be written easily with radians (even using )
 Phasors
Summary
In this topic, we will look at
– Sum of sinusoidal functions
– The trigonometry is exceptionally tedious
– The phasor representation v cos t     v
– The parallel between phasor addition and trigonometric
summations
– Phasor multiplication and inverses
– Use of phasors with linear circuit elements
 Phasors
Acknowledgments
• I would like to thank Prof. David Nairn for assistance in
answering questions and Hua Qiang Cheng for pointing
out errors in a previous version of these slides
 Usage Notes
• These slides are made publicly available on the web for anyone to
use
• If you choose to use them, or a part thereof, for a course at another
institution, I ask only three things:
– that you inform me that you are using the slides,
– that you acknowledge my work, and
– that you alert me of any mistakes which I made or changes which you
make, and allow me the option of incorporating such changes (with an
acknowledgment) in my set of slides

Sincerely,
Douglas Wilhelm Harder, MMath
dwharder@alumni.uwaterloo.ca