Chapter 3

SEMICONDUCTORS
 Classification of Electronic Materials

• Electronic materials can be classified into three

classes, depending on their resistivity ρ (or
equivalently conductivity)
– Insulators (high)
– Conductors (low)
– Semiconductors (intermediate)
Material Resistivity
(Ω.cm)
Insulators 1012 <= ρ
Semiconductors 10-5 < ρ < 105
Conductors ρ < 10-6
 Semiconductor Materials
• Conductor
– When you apply voltage across its terminals large amount
of current passes, e.g. copper
– High conductivity
• Insulator
– When you apply voltage across its terminals, negligible
amount of current passes, e.g. plastic
– High resistivity
• Semiconductor
– Conductivity level somewhere between conductors and
insulators e.g. Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge)
• ρ𝐺𝑒 = 50Ω − 𝑐𝑚
• ρ𝑆𝑖 = 50𝑥103 Ω − 𝑐𝑚
 The Energy Gap

overlap

Insulators gap energy > 9eV

Semiconductors gap energy ~ 1 eV
 The Periodic Table
• Semiconductors can be of two types
– Single element (such as Si and Ge)
– Compound semiconductors, formed by combining
elements from gp III and gp V (GaAs, GaN) or gp II
and gp VI (CdSe)
 Semiconductor Materials
• Both Ge and Si have FOUR valence electrons
• Both will try to bond with FOUR adjoining atoms
to complete their shells and become inert
 The Si Atom
• In the isolated Si atom, 14 electrons occupy 1st 3 energy
levels - 2, 8, 4 (4 valence electrons)
• In Si crystal (each atom surrounded by four others), each
atom shares one valence electron with its neighbor for
stable configuration forming covalent bond

PURE SILICON!
 Intrinsic / Pure Si
• In intrinsic Si, free 𝑒 − are only because of natural causes :
temperature, light, etc
– Thus at absolute zero (-273 deg C, 0 K), there is no current if we
apply voltage to the Si crystal
• At higher temperature (or light), the electrons gain thermal
energy, some breaking away from their bonds to move
freely: free electrons
• As electrons break free, they leave behind a net positive
charge, equal in magnitude to the electron: hole
– Electron-hole pair generation
• STRONG FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE
• NOTAFUNCTIONOFFREE𝑒− orhole CONCENTRATION
• The hole attracts a neighboring electron, thus creating a
new hole in its place.
– Hole movement
 Intrinsic / Pure Si
• As temperature keeps on increasing, the no. of
electron-hole pairs keeps on increasing
• These electrons and holes move around freely and
may combine with each other to be neutralized
• Generation and recombination are both strong
functions of temperature
• Ge and Si have a negative temperature coefficient
– i.e. as temp increases, resistivity decreases
 The Si Atom
• When the electron breaks away, it leaves behind a
‘void’ in the covalent bond, a positive charge equal in
magnitude to that of the electron: this ‘void’ is called
hole.
• Thus the freeing of an electron also begets a hole:
‘electron-hole generation’
• This hole is ready to accept another electron, an
event known as ‘electron-hole recombination’
 Bandgap energy
• Minimum amount of energy required to dislodge an
electron from a covalent bond is “bandgap energy” ,Eg
• The density of free electrons and holes in intrinsic Si
generated at a given temperature is given by( Intrinsic
Charge Concentration)

– k is the Boltzmann’s constant

– Boltzmann's Constant kB = 8.6174 x 10-5 eV
– T is the temperature in Kelvin
– B is a material-dependent parameter (7.3 x 1015 cm-3 K-3/2 for Si)
– 𝐸𝑔 isthe bandgapenergy= 1.12eV*
*: 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Current in intrinsic Si (semiconductors)

• Under no electric field, the free electrons and holes

in the intrinsic Si move randomly.
• When voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic
silicon, the free electrons (conduction band
electrons) move toward the positive end. This
current is called electron current.
 Current in Si (semiconductors)

Hole current: Under the influence of an external electric field,

just as an electron moves towards the positive terminal, the
holes move towards the negative terminal of the battery

• Current in semiconductors is due to the movement of both

electrons and holes
Movement of Electrons in Semiconductors
 Problems with intrinsic Si
• The no. of free electrons and holes is ‘limited’
in intrinsic Semiconductor
• The concentration of free carriers is a strong
function of temperature
• Solution: Extrinsic semiconductors
 Extrinsic(Impure) Semiconductor
• These characteristic of intrinsic semiconductor
can be completely altered by adding certain
impurities to them.
– This process is called “Doping”

• It boosts the density of free charges in the

semiconductor

• These impurities are added 1 atom of impurity to

10 million atoms of intrinsic material
 Doping
• Doping is done by adding impurities having
more number of free electrons or holes.
• Two types of doping:
– N-type: increase the no. of conduction band (free)
electrons by adding atoms with 5 valence electrons
• Antimony, Phosphorous, Arsenic
– P-type: increase the no. of holes by adding atoms
with 3 valence electrons
• Boron, Gallium, Indium
 N-type Doping
• N-type increase the no. of free electrons by adding atoms
with 5 valence electrons (pentavalent)
– The donor atom completes its valence shell by forming covalent bond
with Si
– The ‘extra’ electron becomes free
– The donor atom attains a net positive charge which is immobile as it is
bound to the donor atom.
– Greater the no. of ‘impure atoms’, greater the number of ‘free’
electrons
– 𝑁𝐷 is the donor concentration

o Note: These free electrons do not produce associated holes

 N-type Doping
• Electrons are majority carriers

• However, since at room

temperature, thermal generation
of electron-hole pairs also occurs,
holes are minority carriers

• Current is due to both types of

charges.
 P-type
• P-type increase the no. of holes in by adding atoms with 3
valence electrons (trivalent)
– The acceptor atom completes its valence shell by forming covalent
bonds with Si
– As the trivalent atom lacks the 4th electron, the covalent bond consists
of a ‘hole’
– The donor atom attains a net negative charge which is immobile as it is
bound to the acceptor atom.
– Greater the no. of ‘impure atoms’, greater the number of ‘free’ holes
– 𝑁𝐴 is the acceptor concentration

o Note: These free holes do not produce associated electrons

 P-type
• Holes are majority carriers
• Again, some electron-hole
pairs generated by thermal
process: electrons are
minority carriers
• Current is due to both types of
charges
 immobile

immobile
 Summary
• N-type:
– Electrons – Majority carriers
– Holes – Minority carriers
• P-type:
– Electrons –Minority carriers
– Holes – Majority carriers