Let’s see…

• In human, every body cell

contains ___ chromosomes,
each made up of two___.
Each chromatid consists of
___ and protein molecules.
Each DNA contains several
___
 Chromosomes and DNA
• The chromosomes in the nucleus are
double stranded called chromatid
• Chromatid is made up of
tremendously long deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
• Basic unit of chromosome is called
nucleosome
• Made up of basic proteins called
histones
 What are nucleic acids?
• Also known as polynucleotides (many
nucleotides linked together in a long chain)
• Each nucleotide is made up of 3
components:
1. A five-carbon sugar (called
deoxyribose)
2. A phosphate group
3. A nitrogen base
 .
•A chromatid is made
up of two
complementary
polynucleotides
 What do you mean by
complementary?
•Nitrogenous bases
pair up by forming
weak hydrogen bonds
between them.
 Structure of the
DNA

Only a specific purine can pair

with a pyrimidine
A always pairs with T
G always pairs with C
What is DNA?
(Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid)

Known as the "building

blocks of life“

Carries the genetic

instructions for life
All living things are made
of DNA - plants, animals
and humans, and it is the
small differences in the
DNA code that makes us
different from one
another and makes species
different from each other.
 1859- Charles 1953- Watson and
Darwin Crick

8000 BC- selective 1863- Gregor Mendel

breeding

1966-
Genetic
code
2002-
1990- Human Human
1972- human vs. apes Genome Genome
Project completed
8000 BC- selective
breeding
 1859- Charles
Darwin

8000 BC- selective

breeding
 1859- Charles
Darwin

8000 BC- selective 1863- Gregor Mendel

breeding
 1859- Charles 1953- Watson and
Darwin Crick

8000 BC- selective 1863- Gregor Mendel

breeding
 1859- Charles 1953- Watson and
Darwin Crick

8000 BC- selective 1863- Gregor Mendel

breeding

1966-
Genetic
code
 1859- Charles 1953- Watson and
Darwin Crick

8000 BC- selective 1863- Gregor Mendel

breeding

1966-
Genetic
code

1972- human vs. apes

 1859- Charles 1953- Watson and
Darwin Crick

8000 BC- selective 1863- Gregor Mendel

breeding

1966-
Genetic
code
1990- Human
1972- human vs. apes Genome
Project
 1859- Charles 1953- Watson and
Darwin Crick

8000 BC- selective 1863- Gregor Mendel

breeding

1966-
Genetic
code
2002-
1990- Human Human
1972- human vs. apes Genome Genome
Project completed
 Structure of the
DNA

James D.Watson & Francis C.

Crick (1953)
Developed the double helix
model of DNA
 3 parts

 nitrogen base

pentose sugar

- ribose in RNA
- deoxyribose in DNA

PO4 group
Different Nitrogen bases

. purines
- double ring N base
 adenine (A)
 guanine (G)
 pyrimidines
- single ring N base
 cytosine (C)
 thymine (T)
 uracil (U)
Pairing of nucleotides

Nucleotides bond
between DNA strands
 H bonds
 purine :: pyrimidine
 A :: T
- 2 H bonds
 G :: C
- 3 H bonds
Double helix structure of DNA

the structure of DNA suggested a

mechanism for how DNA is copied
by the cell
Anti-parallel strands
Phosphate to sugar bond involves
carbons in 3’ & 5’ positions
• DNA molecule has “direction”
• complementary strand
runs in opposite direction
• Blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since
it contains the instructions needed to
construct other components of cell
• The DNA segments that carry this
genetic information are called genes.

• Function
 long –term storage of information
What is a gene?
A gene is a piece of DNA
that carries the information
for a specific protein

Genes are in the

DNA of cells
 Transfer of Genetic
Information
• There is another type of nucleic acid
called ribonucleic acid (RNA) that
plays an important role in heredity
• In 1958, Crick proposed the idea that
the sequence involved in the
expression of hereditary
characteristics is from DNA to RNA to
protein.
 THE CENTRAL DOGMA

http://www.sinauer.com/
 RNA

 Another type of polynucleotide

 Workers for protein synthesis
 RNA consists of:
• A Sugar (ribose)
• A phosphate group
• a nitrogenous base
(guanine, adenine, cytosine
or uracil)
 Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Brings information from the DNA
in the nucleus to the protein
manufacturing area – the
cytoplasm
• In the cytoplasm, the mRNA
becomes the template of
information to make proteins
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Forms the structural component
of the ribosome and account for
80% of the total RNA present in
the cell
• serves as the site for attachment
of mRNA and tRNA and for
protein synthesis
 Transfer RNA (tRNA)

• smallest of the 3
types
•supplies amino acids
to the ribosome to be
assembled as protein
 REPLICATION

• The process of making copies

of DNA
• Two identical copies of DNA
molecules are produced,
which are exactly the same as
the original
 Events during replication:

• STEP 1 :

• An enzyme called helicase

breaks the bond between
nitrogenous bases.
• The two strands of DNA
split
• STEP 2:

• The bases attached to

each strand then pair up
with the free nucleotides
found in the cytoplasm
• STEP 3:
• The complementary nucleotides are
added to each strand by DNA
polymerase to form new strands
• Two new DNA molecules, each with a
parent strand and each with a new
strand are formed
• The DNA replication is
known as semi-conservative
replication, because one of
the old strands is conserved
in each new molecule
 TRANSCRIPTION

• Process by which the

information in a strand of
DNA is copied into a new
molecule of messenger
RNA (mRNA)
 Process of Transcription

• STEP 1:
• Ribonucleic acid polymerase
enzyme binds and opens the
DNA molecule that will be
transcribed
• STEP 2:
• As the DNA molecule opens, the
RNA polymerase slides along the
DNA strand and links free RNA
nucleotides that pair with the
nitrogenous bases of the
complementary DNA strand.
• STEP 3:
• When the process of base-pairing
is completed, the RNA molecule
breaks away as the DNA strands
rejoin
• The RNA leaves the nucleus and
goes to the cytoplasm
 TRANSLATION

• Process which determines

the order of bases in mRNA
of amino acids into a
protein.
• Occurs in a ribosome in the
cytoplasm
 Events in Translation
• STEP 1:
• mRNA binds to a ribosome
• tRNA molecules each carrying a specific
amino acid, approach the ribosome
• The tRNA anticodon pairs with the first
Mrna (START) codon – adenine-uracil-
guanine (AUG) to form initiation complex
• Molecules temporarily join together
STEP 2:
• The first codon on mRNA is AUG,
which codes for the amino acid
methionine
• AUG signals the start of protein
synthesis
• Ribosome slides along the mRNA
to the next codon
STEP 3:
• A new tRNA molecule carrying an
amino acid pairs with the second
mRNA codon
• STEP 4:
• Whe the 1st and 2nd amino acids
are in place, an enzyme joins
them by forming a peptide bond
between them
STEP 5:
• As the process continues, a
chain of amino acids is formed
until the ribosome reaches a
stop codon on the mRNA
strans
• Polypeptide chain is released
• Protein synthesis is complete