EKO BAYU AJI

187016022
Chapter 8
Earthquakes and
Earth’s Interior
 What is an earthquake?
• An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the
rapid release of energy.
– Example: 1906 San Francisco Earthquake.
• Earthquakes usually occur when rocks under stress
suddenly shift along a fault.
– Stress: A force that can change the size and shape of rocks.
– Fault: Fractures in the Earth where movement occurred.
• The area along a fault where slippage first occurs is called
the focus of an earthquake.
• The point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus is
called the epicenter.
• When an earthquake occurs, seismic waves radiate outward
in all directions from the focus.
What is an earthquake?
 A fault is
A. A place on Earth where earthquakes
cannot occur.
B. A fracture in the Earth where movement
has occurred.
C. The place on Earth’s surface where
structures move during an earthquake.
D. Another name for an earthquake.
 An earthquake’s epicenter is
A. The place on the surface directly above
the focus.
B. A spot halfway between the focus and the
surface.
C. The spot below the focus.
D. Any spot along the nearest fault.
When an earthquake occurs, energy radiates in all
directions from its source, which is called the
A. Epicenter.
B. Focus.
C. Fault.
D. Seismic Center.
 Earthquakes are usually associated with
A. Violent weather.
B. Faults.
C. Large cities.
D. The east coast of North America.
 What is an earthquake?
• Geologists explain many earthquakes by the
elastic rebound hypothesis.
• This hypothesis states that when the stress in
rocks becomes to great, they fracture,
separate, and spring back to their original
shape, or rebound.
• As they fracture and slip into new positions,
rocks along a fault release energy in the form
of vibrations called seismic waves.
What is an earthquake?
Which of the following causes earthquakes?
A. Elastic Rebound.
B. Richter Scale.
C. Release of Heat.
D. Frictional Heating.
The hypothesis that explains the release of energy
during an earthquake is called the
A. Richter Hypothesis.
B. Moment Magnitude Hypothesis.
C. Vibration Hypothesis.
D. Elastic Rebound Hypothesis.
 Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid
release of which kind of energy stored in rock
subjected to great forces?
A. Chemical
B. Thermal
C. Elastic
D. Mechanical
 During an earthquake, the ground surface
A. Moves only in a horizontal direction.
B. Moves only in a vertical direction.
C. Can move in any direction.
D. Does not move.
 What is an earthquake?
• This release of energy often increases the
stress in other rocks along the fault, causing
them to fracture and spring back.
• This reaction is the reason that major
earthquakes are usually followed by a series
of smaller tremors called aftershocks.
• These aftershocks are usually much weaker
than the main earthquake, but they can
sometimes destroy structures weakened by
the main quake.
 What is an earthquake?
• Small earthquakes called foreshocks often come before a
major earthquake.
– These can happen days or even years before the major quake.
• The San Andreas Fault is the most studied fault system in
the world.
– Studies have shown that displacement has occurred along segments
that are 100 to 200-kilometers long (63 to 125-miles).
• Some segments move slowly, which is known as fault creep.
• Other segments regularly slip and produce small
earthquakes.
• Some segments stay locked and store elastic energy for
hundreds of years before they break and cause great
earthquakes.
The adjustments of materials that follow a major
earthquake often generate smaller earthquakes
called
A. Foreshocks.
B. Surface waves.
C. Aftershocks.
D. Body waves.
Major earthquakes are sometimes preceded by
smaller earthquakes called
A. Aftershocks.
B. Focus shocks.
C. Surface waves.
D. Foreshocks.
The slow continuous movement that occurs along
some fault zones is referred to as
A. Slip.
B. Creep.
C. Fracture.
D. A foreshock.
Small foreshocks that precede a major earthquake
occur
A. From the day of the major earthquake to
days after the earthquake.
B. Only on the day of the major earthquake.
C. Days or years before the major
earthquake.
D. Only on the day before the major
earthquake.
 Measuring earthquakes
• The study of earthquake waves, or seismology
dates back almost 2000 years.
– The first attempts to discover the direction of earthquakes
were made by the Chinese.
• Seismic waves can be detected and recorded by
using an instrument called a seismograph.
– Seismos = shake; graph = write.
• A seismograph consists of three separate sensing
devices.
– One device records the vertical motion of the ground.
– The other two record horizontal motion in the east-west
and north-south directions.
Measuring earthquakes
 Measuring earthquakes
• Modern seismographs
amplify and
electronically record
ground motion,
producing a trace,
called a seismogram.
– Seismos = shake; gram
= what is written.
The trace that records an earthquake from
seismic instruments is called a

A. Seismograph.
B. Seismogram.
C. Richtergram.
D. Magnitude.
What instrument records earthquake waves?

A. Seismogram
B. Seismograph
C. Richter scale
D. Barometer
 Measuring earthquakes
• Scientists have determined that earthquakes
generally produce three major types of
seismic waves.
– Primary Waves (P-Waves).
– Secondary Waves (S-Waves).
– Surface Waves.
• Each type of waves travels at a different
speed and causes different movements in the
earth’s crust.
 Measuring earthquakes
• Primary Waves (P-Waves):
– Move the fastest and are therefore the first to be recorded
by a seismograph.
• Travel 1.7 times faster than S-waves.
– P-waves moving through the earth can travel through
solids and liquids.
– The more rigid the material, the faster the P-waves travel
through it.
– P-waves are compression waves (push-pull waves),
meaning that they cause rock particles to move together
and apart along the direction of the waves.
 Measuring earthquakes
• Secondary Waves (S-Waves):
– Are the second waves to be detected on a
seismograph.
– Unlike P-waves, S-waves can only travel through
solid material.
– S-waves cannot be detected on the side of the
earth that is opposite the earthquake’s epicenter.
– S-waves are shear waves, meaning that they
cause rock particles to move at right angles to the
direction in which the waves are traveling.
 Measuring earthquakes
• When P and S reach the earth’s surface, their
energy can be converted into a third type of
seismic wave.
• Surface Waves:
– Are the slowest-moving waves and therefore are
the last to be recorded on the seismograph.
• Travel at about 90% of the speed of the S-waves.
– Surface waves, which cause the surface to rise
and fall, are particularly destructive when traveling
through loose earth.
• Most destructive wave.
Measuring earthquakes
 Measuring earthquakes
• To determine how far an earthquake is from a
given seismograph, scientists plot the
difference between arrival times of the two
waves.
• Then they consult a standard graph that
translates the difference in arrival times into
distance from the epicenter.
• For scientists to locate the epicenter, they
need information from at least three
seismograph stations at different locations.
Measuring earthquakes
 Which seismic waves travel most rapidly?

A. P waves
B. S waves
C. Surface waves
D. Tsunamis
Which one of the following statements is true
about P waves?

A. They travel only through solids.

B. They travel faster than S waves.
C. They are the most destructive type of
seismic wave.
D. They cannot be recorded on a
seismograph.
Which seismic waves compress and expand in
the direction the waves travel?

A. P waves
B. S waves
C. Surface waves
D. Transverse waves
 A seismogram shows that P waves travel

A. At the same speed as surface waves.

B. More slowly than S waves.
C. At the same speed as S waves.
D. Faster than S waves.
Which of the following is not a characteristic of S
waves?

A. They travel more slowly than P waves.

B. They temporarily change the volume of
material by compression and expansion.
C. They shake particles at right angles to the
direction the waves travel.
D. They cannot be transmitted through water
or air.
Overall, which seismic waves are the most
destructive?

A. P waves
B. S waves
C. Compression waves
D. Surface waves
What is the minimum number of seismic stations
that is needed to determine the location of an
earthquake’s epicenter?
A. 2
B. 1
C. 4
D. 3
A travel-time graph can be used to find the

A. Focus of an earthquake.
B. Strength of an earthquake.
C. Damage caused by an earthquake.
D. Distance to the epicenter of an
earthquake.
The distance between a seismic station and the
earthquake epicenter is determined from the

A. Calculation of the earthquake magnitude.

B. Intensity of the earthquake.
C. Arrival times of P and S waves.
D. Measurement of the amplitude of the
surface wave.
 Measuring earthquakes
• About 95% of the major earthquakes occur in
a few narrow zones.
– Circum-Pacific Belt, Mediterranean-Asian Belt,
and the Mid-Ocean Ridges.
• Most of the earthquakes occur around the
outer edge of the Pacific Ocean.
Measuring earthquakes
 Measuring earthquakes
• Historically, scientists have used two different types
of measurements to describe the size of an
earthquake – intensity and magnitude.
– Intensity is a measure of the amount of earthquake
shaking at a given location based on the amount of
damage.
– Magnitudes are a measure of the size of seismic waves
or the amount of energy released at the source of the
earthquake.
• Intensity is not a quantitative measurement because
it is based on uncertain personal damage estimates.
• Magnitude is a quantitative measurement.
An earthquake’s magnitude is a measure of the

A. Size of seismic waves it produces.

B. Amount of shaking it produces.
C. Number of surface waves it produces.
D. Damage it causes.
 The amount of shaking produced by an
earthquake at a given location is called the

A. Intensity.
B. Magnitude.
C. Epicenter.
D. Richter magnitude.
 Measuring earthquakes
• Seismologists express magnitude using a magnitude scale,
such as the Richter Scale or the Moment Magnitude Scale.
• The Richter Scale is based on the amplitude of the largest
seismic wave recorded on the seismogram.
• The Richter scale is a power of 10 scale.
– Example: The amount of ground shaking for a 5.0 earthquake is 10
times greater than the shaking produced by an earthquake of 4.0 on
the Richter scale.
• The Richter Scale is only useful for small, shallow
earthquakes within about 500-kilometers of the epicenter.
• Most of the earthquake measurements you hear on news
reports use the Richter Scale.
 Measuring earthquakes
• The Moment Magnitude is derived from the amount
of displacement that occurs along a fault zone.
• It is calculated using several factors:
– Average amount of movement along the fault.
– The area of the surface break.
– The strength of the broken rock.
– Equation form:
(surface area of fault) × (average displacement along fault) × (rigidity of rock)
• Moment magnitude is the most widely used
measurement for earthquakes because it is the only
magnitude scale that estimates the energy released
by earthquakes.
Measuring earthquakes
Measuring earthquakes
The scale most widely used by scientists for
measuring earthquakes is the

A. Seismic scale.
B. Richter scale.
C. Moment magnitude scale.
D. Epicenter magnitude scale.
How much of an increase in wave amplitude is
seen from an earthquake measuring 5.4 on the
Richter scale compared to one measuring 4.4?
A. Two times
B. Ten times
C. 20 times
D. 100 times
 The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is
determined from the

A. Duration of an earthquake.
B. Intensity of an earthquake.
C. Arrival times of P waves and S waves.
D. Measurement of the amplitude of the
largest seismic waves.
 Destruction from earthquakes

• The damage to buildings and other structures

from earthquake waves depends on several
factors.
– Intensity and duration of vibrations.
– The nature of the material on which the structure
is built.
– The design of the structure.
• Engineers have learned that unreinforced
stone or brick buildings are the most serious
safety threats during earthquake.
 Destruction from earthquakes

• Where loosely consolidated sediments are

saturated with water, earthquakes can cause
a process known as liquefaction.
– Liquefaction: A phenomenon, sometimes
associated with earthquakes, in which soils and
other unconsolidated materials saturated with
water are turned into a liquid that is not able to
support buildings.
• Buildings/Bridges may settle and collapse.
• Underground storage tanks and sewer lines
may float toward the surface.
 Which of the following affects the amount of
destruction caused by earthquake vibrations?

A. The design of structures.

B. The intensity and duration of the
vibrations.
C. The nature of the material on which
structures are built.
D. All of the above.
In which of the following areas would the damage
from an earthquake measuring 6.8 likely be the
greatest?
A. Lightly populated rural area.
B. Area with older brick structures.
C. Area with modern steel-framed structures.
D. Area with wood-framed structures.
Which of the following areas would most likely be
the safest during a major earthquake?

A. Area with granite bedrock.

B. Area with loosely consolidated soil.
C. Area with structures built on a landfill.
D. Area with steep slopes of unconsolidated
sediments.
 In areas where unconsolidated sediments are
saturated with water, earthquakes can turn
stable soil into a fluid through a process called
A. Tidal effect.
B. Fault creep.
C. Liquefaction.
D. Underwater landslide.
 A building that settles unevenly after an
earthquake is evidence of

A. A tsunami.
B. Liquefaction.
C. An underwater landslide.
D. Fault creep.
 Destruction from earthquakes

• A major earthquake with an epicenter on the

ocean floor sometimes causes a giant ocean
wave called a tsunami.
– This name comes from the Japanese word for
“harbor wave.”
• Scientists think that most tsunamis are
caused by two events related to undersea
earthquakes:
– Faulting
– Underwater landslides.
 Destruction from earthquakes

• A tsunami travels across the ocean at speeds

of 500 to 950 km/hr (310 to 590 mph).
• A tsunami can also go unnoticed in the open
ocean because its height is usually less than
1 meter (3.3 feet), and the distance between
wave crests can range from 100 to 700 km
(62 to 435 miles).
• When the wave enters shallower coastal
water, it is slowed and begins to pile up to
heights that sometimes are greater than 30
meters (98 feet).
Destruction from earthquakes
 Destruction from earthquakes

• Disastrous earthquakes and tsunamis have encouraged the

expansion and improvement of the Pacific Tsunami
Warning Center (PTWC).
• This network of seismograph stations around and in the
Pacific Ocean alerts scientists to the location and magnitude
of earthquakes.
• If a tsunami seems possible, scientists estimate its arrival
times at different locations.
• They can then issue warnings immediately to these areas.
• However, there will not be enough time to issue tsunami
warnings to areas very near the epicenter of the earthquake.
• On average, only one or two destructive tsunamis are
generated worldwide every year.
• Only about one tsunami in every 10 years causes major
damage and loss of life.
 Tsunamis are
A. Often generated by movements of the
ocean floor.
B. Waves that are produced by tidal forces.
C. Waves that cannot cause damage on
land.
D. Also known as tidal waves.
A succession of ocean waves set in motion by an
submarine earthquake is called a (an)

A. Compression wave.
B. Underwater landslide.
C. Tsunami.
D. Liquefaction.
A tsunami can occur when there is vertical
movement at a fault under

A. A mountain range.
B. The San Andreas Fault.
C. The ocean floor.
D. A small inland lake.
 Destruction from earthquakes

• The vibrations from earthquakes cause other dangers:

– Landslides.
– Ground subsidence.
– Fires.
1. Landslides:
• With many earthquakes, the greatest damage to structures
is from landslides and ground subsidence, or the sinking of
the ground triggered by the vibrations.
2. Fire:
• Fires are started when gas and electrical lines are cut
during an earthquake.
• They are hard to stop due to the water lines also being cut
by an earthquake.
 Destruction from earthquakes

• Humans have long dreamed of being able to accurately predict earthquakes.

• There are two different predictions that scientists can make about earthquakes:
– Short-Range Predictions.
– Long-Range Forecasts.
1. Short-Range Predictions:
• The goal of these predictions is to provide an early warning of the location and
magnitude of a large earthquake.
• Researchers monitor possible precursors – things that precede and may warn
of a future earthquake.
• Examples:
– Uplift.
– Subsidence.
– Strain in the rocks near active faults.
– Water levels and pressure in wells.
– Radon gas emissions from fractures.
– Changes in electromagnetic properties of rocks.
• So far, methods for short-range predictions of earthquakes have not
been successful.
 Destruction from earthquakes

2. Long-Range Forecasts:
• Give the probability of a certain magnitude
earthquake occurring with 30 to 100-plus years.
• Based on the idea that earthquakes are repetitive or
cyclical.
• Scientists study historical records of earthquakes to
see if there are any patterns of recurrence.
• They also study seismic gaps – an area along a
fault where there has not been any earthquake
activity for a long period of time.
• Scientists don’t yet understand enough about how
and where earthquakes will occur to make accurate
long-term predictions.
Violent shaking from an earthquake can cause
the soil and rock on slopes to fail and cause a

A. Fault.
B. Landslide.
C. Tsunami.
D. Sinkhole.
Why do earthquakes often cause damaging fires?

A. Lightning strikes are common during

earthquakes.
B. Earthquake vibrations can break gas lines,
water lines, and electrical lines.
C. Tsunamis from earthquakes generate enough
heat to start fires.
D. Magma from deep underground escapes
through faults.
Which of the following is used in an attempt to
make short-range predictions of when
earthquakes will occur?
A. Strain in rocks near faults.
B. Height of ocean waves after earthquakes.
C. Changes in the color of rocks near faults.
D. Study of historical records.
Long-range earthquake forecasts are based on
the idea that earthquakes are

A. Random.
B. Destructive.
C. Fully understood.
D. Repetitive.
 Earth’s layered structure
• Most knowledge of the interior of the Earth comes
from the study of earthquake waves.
• If the Earth were made of the same materials
throughout, seismic waves would spread through it
in straight lines at constant speed.
• Seismic waves travel at different speeds due to the
differences in the composition of the Earth.
• The general increase in speed with depth is due to
increased pressure, which changes the elastic
properties of deeply buried rock.
• As a result, the paths of seismic waves are
refracted, or bent, as they travel.
Earth’s layered structure
 Earth’s layered structure
• Earth’s interior consists of three major zones defined by its chemical
composition:
– Crust
– Mantle
– Core
1. Crust:
• The crust is the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth, which is divided into
oceanic and continental crust.
• The oceanic crust is roughly 7-kilometers thick and composed of the
igneous rocks basalt and gabbro.
• The continental crust is 8 – 75-kilometers thick (average 40-km), and
consists of many types of rock.
• The average composition of the continental crust is granitic rock called
granodiorite.
• Continental rocks have an average density of about 2.7-g.cm3 and
some are over 4 billion years old.
• The rocks of the oceanic crust are younger (180 million years or less)
and have an average density of about 3.0-g/cm3.
 Earth’s layered structure
2. Mantle:
• The mantle is a solid, rocky shell that extends
to a depth of 2890-km.
• Over 82% of Earth’s volume is contained in
the mantle.
• The boundary between the crust and mantle
represents a change in chemical composition.
• The dominant rock in the uppermost mantle is
perioditite, which has a density of 3.4-g/cm3.
 Earth’s layered structure
3. Core:
• The core is a sphere composed of an iron-
nickel alloy.
• At the extreme pressures found in the center
of the core, the iron-rich material has an
average density of almost 13-g/cm3 (13 times
heavier than water).
Earth’s layered structure
Most of the information about Earth’s interior
was obtained by studying
A. Earthquake waves.
B. Rocks of the ocean crust.
C. Meteorites.
D. Rocks in deep wells.
 Earth’s thin, rocky outer layer is its

A. Core.
B. Mantle.
C. Outer core.
D. Crust.
 Earth’s core is made of an alloy of

A. Iron and nickel.

B. Copper and iron.
C. Zinc and magnesium.
D. Iron and zinc.
 The continental crust has the average
composition of
A. Gneiss.
B. Granite.
C. Basalt.
D. Limestone.
 Earth’s layered structure
• Scientists have no direct way to measure
temperatures deep within the earth.
• Analysis of seismic waves and heat flow near the
earth’s surface and computer modeling allow
scientists to estimate those temperatures.
• The following graph estimates the earth’s inner
temperatures and pressures.
• The graph shows, the combined temperature and
pressure in the lower part of the mantle keep the
rocks located there below their melting point.
Earth’s layered structure
 Earth’s layered structure
• Earth can be divided into 4 additional layers based on physical
properties:
– The lithosphere.
– The asthenosphere.
– The outer core.
– The inner core.
1. Lithosphere and Asthenosphere:
• Earth’s outermost layer consists of the crust and uppermost mantle and
forms a relatively cool, rigid shell called the lithosphere.
• This layer averages 100-km in thickness.
• Beneath the lithosphere lies a soft, comparatively weak layer known as
the asthenosphere.
• The asthenosphere has temperature/pressure conditions that may
result in a small amount of melting.
• The lower lithosphere and asthenosphere are both part of the upper
mantle.
 Earth’s layered structure
• From a depth of about 660-km down to near
the base of the mantle lies a more rigid layer
known as the lower mantle.
• The rocks in the lower mantle are still very hot
and capable of gradual flow.
• The bottom few hundred kilometers of the
mantle, laying on top of the hot outer core,
contains softer, more flowing rock like that of
the asthenosphere.
 Earth’s layered structure
2. Inner and Outer Core:
• The core is divided into two regions with
different physical properties.
• The outer core is a liquid layer 2260-km thick.
• The flow of metallic iron within this zone
generates Earth’s magnetic field.
• The inner core is a sphere having a radius of
1220-km.
• The material in the inner core is compressed
into a solid state by the immense pressure.
Earth’s layered structure
What layers of Earth make up the lithosphere?

A. The crust and lower mantle.

B. The crust and upper mantle.
C. The continental crust and oceanic crust.
D. The upper and lower mantle.
 Earth’s inner core is solid because of

A. The composition of its rock.

B. Its great diameter.
C. Extreme temperatures.
D. Immense pressure.
 Earth’s layered structure
• In 1909 Andrija Mohorovičić, a Croatian
scientist, discovered that the speed of seismic
waves increases abruptly 32 km to 70 km
beneath the earth’s surface.
• This change in speed of the waves marks the
boundary between the crust and the mantle.
• The boundary is called the Mohorovičić
discontinuity, or the Moho.
• The increase in speed at the Moho indicates
that the earth’s mantle is denser that its crust.
 Earth’s layered structure
• Below the Moho, at a depth of about 100 km, a decrease in
seismic waves speed marks the boundary between the
lithosphere and the less rigid asthenosphere.
• Seismic waves then increase in speed until, at a depth of
about 2,900 km, P waves slow down again, while the S
waves disappear entirely.
• These changes in seismic waves mark the boundary
between the mantle and the outer core.
• Because S waves cannot travel through liquids and P waves
slow down in less-rigid materials, scientists think the outer
core may be a dense liquid.
• At a depth of 5,150 km, P waves speed up again, marking
the boundary between the outer core and the inner core.
• This increase in speed suggests that the inner core is a
dense, rigid solid.
Earth’s layered structure
 Earth’s layered structure
• Recordings of seismic waves around the world
reveal shadow zones on the earth’s surface.
• Shadow zones are locations on the earth’s surface
where neither S waves nor P waves are detected or
where only P waves are detected.
• Shadow zones occur because the materials that
make up the earth’s interior are not uniform in
rigidity.
• When seismic waves travel through materials of
differing rigidities, their speed changes, causing the
waves to bend and change direction.
Earth’s layered structure
 Earth’s layered structure
• Through seismic data and drilling technology, the composition of
the continental and oceanic crust was classified.
– Continental = granitic
– Oceanic = basaltic
• The composition of the rocks of the mantle and core is known from
more indirect data.
– Example: Magma from volcanic activity and lab experiments with the rock
peridotite showed similar properties.
• Earth’s core is thought to be mainly dense iron and nickel, similar
to metallic meteorites.
– Scientists assume that meteorites are composed of the same material from
which Earth was formed (Big Bang Theory). Since iron is a dense element, it
is believed that it sank toward Earth’s center, with less dense elements
floating to the surface of Earth.
• The surrounding mantle is believed to be composed of rocks
similar to stony meteorites.
 The Moho is
A. The boundary between the outer and
inner core.
B. The boundary between the crust and the
mantle.
C. The material of which the mantle is
composed.
D. An area of the mantle that will not transmit
seismic waves.
Through which Earth layer are S-waves not
transmitted?

A. Continental crust.
B. Ocean crust.
C. Inner core.
D. Outer core.
 Evidence that Earth’s core has a high iron
content comes from

A. Deep wells.
B. Deep-sea drilling.
C. The study of earthquake waves.
D. Meteorites.
The greatest concentration of metals occurs in
Earth’s
A. Oceanic crust.
B. Continental crust.
C. Core.
D. Mantle.