CH 1 River Eng (Desu)

Chapter One
1. River Development and Training

1.1. Rivers and their Behaviors
 Rivers are the natural canals which carry a huge quantity of
water drained by the catchments as runoff.
 Rivers are important arrangements of the hydrological cycle.
 In addition, rivers carry a large amount of silt or sediment
which is washed down from the catchments area and also
eroded from the bed and banks of river.
Cont…
River :- is one of the surface water source
 They take off from mountains
 River flow from mountainous terrains and join ocean
 Rivers carry huge amount of water & tremendous amount of
silt or sediment.
Fig.1.1 River
Types of Rivers
Rivers can be classified according to different criteria:
o Classification based on variation of discharge
i. Perennial River: - Perennial Rivers have adequate
discharge throughout the year.
ii. Non-perennial rivers:- their flow is quite high during
and after rainy seasons and reduces significantly during
dry seasons.
iii. Flashy rivers:- in these rivers, there is a sudden increases
in discharge. The river stage rises and falls in a very short
period.
iv. Virgin rivers: -these are those rivers which get
completely dried up before joining another river and sea.
Types of Rivers Cont…
o Classification based on the location of reach:
i. Mountainous rivers/ Rivers in hill: they flow in hilly and
mountainous regions. These rivers are further divided into
rocky rivers and boulder rivers.
ii. Rivers in flood plains: after the boulder stages, a river
enters the flood plains having alluvial soil. The bed and
banks of river are made up of sand and silt.
iii. Delta Rivers: when a river enters a deltaic plain, it splits
into a number of small branches due to very flat slopes.
There is shoal formation and braiding of the channels in
the delta rivers.
Fig.1.2 Delta formation

o Classification based on the location of reach:
iv. Tidal rivers:- just before joining a sea or ocean, the river
becomes a tidal river. In a tidal river, there are periodic
changes in water level due to tides.
o Classification based on plan-form:
i. Straight rivers:- these rivers are straight in plain and
have cross-sectional shape of a trough. The maximum
velocity of flow usually occurs in the middle of the
section. Fig.1.3 a ) Straight River
ii. Meandering Rivers:- follow a winding course. They
consist of a series of bends of alternate curvature in the
plain. The successive curves are connected by small
straight reach of the river called crossovers or crossings.
Fig. 1.3 b) Meandering rivers
iii. Braided rivers:- flow in two or more channels around
alluvial islands developed due to deposition of silt.
Fig. 1.3 c) Braided Rivers
Fig.1.3 Plan form rivers

Fig.1.4
Braided River
When a river flows in two or more channels around alluvial
islands, it is called a braided river see the Figure 1.5 below.
The braided patterns in a river develop after local deposition of
coarser material which cannot be transported under prevailing
conditions of flow and which subsequently grows into an island
consisting of coarse as well as fine material.
Fig.1.5 Typical braided reach of a river

Stages of rivers
As the river flows from its origin in a mountain to a sea, it passes

through various stages. A river generally has the following
four stages:
a. Rocky stage
b. Boulder stage
c. Alluvial stage
d. Deltaic stage
Stages of rivers cont…
Fig.1.6 Stages of rivers

a). Rocky stage: it is also called the hilly or mountainous stage

or the incised stage.
 The flow channel is formed on the rock by degradation and
cutting.
 It is the first stage of the river after it takes off from
mountain and flows through a hilly region.
 In this stage, the river has very steep slopes and the
velocity of water is quite high.
 The rocky stage is ideal for the construction of dams.
b). Boulder stage:- the bed and banks are usually composed of
large boulders, gravels and shingles.
 The bed slop is quite steep
 The river first flows through wide shallow and interlaced
channels and then develop a straight course.
 In this stage, the bed slope is quite steep
 Most of the diversion head works are constructed in this
stage.
c). Trough and Alluvial stage: the river in this stage flows in a
zig- zag manner known as meandering.
 The cross section of the river is made up of alluvial sand
and silt.
 The material gets eroded form the concave side (the outer
side) of the bend and gets deposited on the convex side
(inner side) of the bend.
 The bed slope is flat and consequently the velocity is small.
 The behavior of the river in this stage depends up on the
silt charge and the flood discharge. The river may be
aggrading, degrading or stable type.
 River training works are required in the alluvial stage.
d). Deltaic stage: is the last stage of the river just before it
discharge into the sea.
 In this stage, the river gets divided into a number of small
branches and forms a delta.
 In the deltaic stage, the bed slope and river velocity are so
much reduced that the river is unable to carry its sediment
load.
 As a result, it drops its sediments and gets divided into
channels on either side of the deposited sediment and form
the delta.
 As the river approaches the sea, the channels get silted up
and the water level rises.
Types of alluvial rivers
Alluvial rivers can be broadly classified into three types:
 aggrading
 degrading
 stable river
 If the river is collecting sediment and is building up its bed it is
called an aggrading (accreting) type.
 If the bed is getting scoured year to year, it is called a
degrading type.
 If there is no silting or scouring, it is called a stable river.
Types of alluvial rivers cont…
a). Aggrading or accreting type:- is a silting river.
 It builds up its slope.
 The silting is mainly due to various reasons, such as: heavy
sediment load, construction of an obstruction across a river,
sudden intrusion of sediment from a tributary, etc.
Fig.1.7 Aggrading River

b). Degrading type; if the river bed is constantly getting scoured,
to reduce and dissipate available excess land slope as shown in
the figure below, then it is known as degrading.
 It is found either above a cutoff or below a dam or weir
Fig.1.8 Degrading River

c). Stable type: a river that does not change its alignment, slope
and its regime significant is called Stable River.
Fig.1.9 Stable River

Behaviors of rivers in alluvial stages
The behaviors of alluvial rivers depend to a large extent on the

sediment carried by it. The sediment carried by the river poses
numerous problems, such as:
 increasing of flood levels
 silting of reservoirs
 silting of irrigation and navigation channels
 splitting of a river into a number of interacted channels
 meandering of rivers
Behaviors of rivers in alluvial stages cont…
Especially the meandering causes the river to leave its original

course and adopt a new course.
An alluvial river usually has the following three stages:
i. flow in a straight reach
ii. flow at bends
iii. development of meanders
i. Flow in a straight reach: the river cross section is in the

shape of a trough, with high velocity flow in the middle of
the section.
 Since the velocity is higher in the middle, the water surface
level will be lower in the middle and higher at the edges.
 Due to the existence of this transverse gradient from sides
towards the center, transverse rotary currents get developed.
However, straight reaches are very few in alluvial channels.
Fig.1.10 Straight Reach

ii. Bends:-
 Every alluvial river tends to develop bends, which are
characterized by scouring on the concave side and silting on
the convex side.
 The silting and scouring in bends may continue due to the
action of centrifugal force.
Fig.1.11 Bends
iii. Development of Meanders:-

 Once a bend in the river has been developed, either due to its
own characteristics or due to the impressed external forces, the
process continues furthest downstream.
 The successive bends of the reveres order are formed. It
ultimately leads to the development of a complete S-curve
called a meander.
Fig.1.12 Meanders
Development of Meanders:-
Causes Meandering
The latest and widely accepted theory behind the causes of
meandering is the extra turbulence generated by excess of the
river sediments during floods.
 When the silt charge is in excess of the quantity for stability
the river starts building up its slope by deposing the silt on its
bed.
 The deposition of silt at the banks & beds of the river leads to
meandering
There are four variable which govern to meandering process.
i) Valley slope
ii) Silt grade & silt charge
iii) Bed & side material and their susceptibility to erosion
iv) Discharge.
The following Table shows the tentative relationships between

different parameters.
Table 1 : The tentative relationships between different
parameters.
Where W= width of river

Q= Dominant discharge
 For natural rivers the discharge which determines the meander

length and meander belt is called Dominant discharge .
 It is different from the maximum discharge because at
maximum discharge the erosion of bank is reduced.
 The meander pattern of the discharge cycle during a flood
season and not by the maximum discharge.
 In most rivers the dominant discharge varies between ½ to 2/3
of the maximum discharge.
 Meander length for river in flood plain will be given as
Where; Q dominant = ½ to 2/3 of Q max

Cut off
In an excessively meandering river a particular bend may
sometimes be abandoned by the formation of straight and short
channel (AB) as shown in the figure below.
The process, where by, this chord channel is developed or the
chord channel itself, is termed as cut-off. It is evident that a
meander increases the river length but a cut- off reduces the river
length. Hence, a cut off is a nature phenomenon for
counterbalancing the otherwise ever increasing length of the river
course due to the development of meanders.
Excessive Meander
1. ML will be minimum
2. The bed will be shallow or the depth of water is minimum
3. Over flow through the bank of original river
Cut-off ratio
 Is the ratio of length of the bed to that of the chord.
 Cut off ratio= ABC/AB
 This ratio varies depending up on the characteristics of the river at site. Such
as: the discharge, the flood stage, fall surface, bed material and its suitability
for the growth of the protective grass and weeds, etc.
Hence, only a certain minimum value of cut-off ratio is not sufficient for the
development of a cut-off.
 Normally the cut-off may be developed, if the following conditions are
satisfied.
i) cut-off ratio varies from 1.7 to 3.0 or more
ii) If the ratio of r to square root of Q(max. discharge) between 13 to 24
Where, r is the radius of curvature of the loop (bend)
River Characteristics
Introduction
 The primary function of a river channel is the conveyance of
water and sediment.
 It should be appreciated that this primary function cannot be
stopped.
 Nor can the long-term average be changed by measures
carried out in the riverbed.
 Thus alterations in space and time can only be made within
the context of ultimate equilibrium.
River Characteristics cont…
 The most conspicuous aspect of a river channel, apart from

its size, is the amount of water it carries. This is best shown
in a hydrograph.
 A hydrograph is a time series of water level data or discharge
data.
 Changes in discharge cause changes in water level in the
river channel.
 At very high discharges a river channel overflows its banks

on to the adjacent land. This periodically flooded land is
called the flood plain.
Catchment Area
 Total area from which surface runoff flows to a given point of
concentration is called a catchment area, drainage basin,
drainage area, or a watershed.
 Hence, a catchment area is always connected to a certain point

of concentration, the lowest point of the respective basin.
 The imaginary line delimiting various watersheds is known as
water dividing line or water-divide.
 Its configuration depends on the topography only, and it runs
along the highest points of the surrounding area.
Watershed Forms
 Form of a watershed varies greatly, however, and is tied to
many factors including climatic regime, underlying geology,
morphology, soils, and vegetation.
 Drainage Patterns:- One distinctive aspect of a watershed
when observed in plan form (map view) is its drainage pattern.
Drainage patterns are primarily controlled by the overall
topography and underlying geologic structure of the
watershed.
Figure : Watershed drainage patterns.

 Patterns are determined by topography and geologic
structure.
Stream Ordering: A method of classifying, or ordering, the
hierarchy of natural channels within a watershed was developed
by Horton (1945).
 Several modifications of the original stream ordering scheme
have been proposed, but the modified system of Strahler
(1957) is probably the most popular today.
 The uppermost channels in a drainage network (i.e., headwater
channels with no upstream tributaries) are designated as first-
order streams down to their first confluence.
 A second-order stream is formed below the confluence of two
first-order channels.
 Third-order streams are created when two second-order
channels join, and so on.
 Note in the figure that the intersection of a channel with
another channel of lower order does not raise the order of the
stream below the intersection (e.g., a fourth-order stream
intersecting with a second-order stream is still a fourth-order
stream below the intersection).
Figure: Stream ordering in a drainage network.

Stream ordering is a method of classifying the hierarchy
of natural channels in a watershed.
Channel and Ground Water Relationships
 The relationship is strongest in streams with gravel riverbeds in
well-developed alluvial floodplains.
• Influent or “losing” reaches lose stream water to the aquifer.
• Effluent or “gaining” reaches receive discharges from the
aquifer.
Practitioners categorize streams based on the balance and timing
of the storm flow and base flow components. There are three
main categories:
 Ephemeral streams:- flow only during or immediately after
periods of precipitation. They generally flow less than 30 days
per year.
 Intermittent streams:- flow only during certain times of the
year. Seasonal flow in an intermittent stream usually lasts
longer than 30 days per year.
 Perennial streams:- flow continuously during both wet and
dry times. Base flow is dependably generated from the
movement of ground water into the channel.
Discharge Regime: Stream flow is one of the variables that determine the size and
shape of the channel. There are three types of characteristic discharges:
1. Channel-forming (or dominant) discharge: Is a discharge that over long

period time transports the most sediment.
 If the stream flow were held constant at the channel-forming discharge, it would
result in channel morphology close to the existing channel.
 However, there is no method for directly calculating channel-forming discharge.
 An estimate of channel-forming discharge for a particular stream reach can, with

some qualifications be related to depth, width, and shape of channel.
 Also such a discharge may be computed by combining
information from a daily sediment rating curve and discharge
duration curve.
 Channel-forming discharges are strictly applicable only to
channels in equilibrium, the concept can be used to select
appropriate channel geometry for restoring a disturbed reach.
2. Effective discharge:
 Effective discharge is defined as the mean of the discharge
increment that transports the largest fraction of the annual
sediment load over a period of years
 The effective discharge is the calculated measure of channel-
forming discharge.
 Computation of effective discharge requires long-term water
and sediment measurements, either for the stream in question or
for one very similar.
3. Bankfull discharge
 This discharge occurs when water just begins to leave the
channel and spread onto the floodplain.
 Bankfull discharge is equivalent to channel-forming
(conceptual) and effective (calculated) discharge.
Longitudinal View along a Stream
 Channel width and depth increase downstream due to
increasing drainage area and discharge.
 Related structural changes also occur in the channel,
floodplain, and transitional upland fringe, and in processes
such as erosion and deposition
o The overall longitudinal profile of most streams can be
roughly divided into three zones:
o The overall longitudinal profile of most streams can be
roughly divided into three zones:
 Zone 1, or headwaters (or upper course), often has the
steepest gradient. Sediment erodes from slopes of the
watershed and moves downstream. Typically erosive stream
characteristics
 Deep narrow valley (V shaped)
 Interlocking spurs
 Fast flowing river (erosion predominant)
 Pot holes in the river bed
 Rapids and Waterfalls
Zone 2, the transfer zone (or Middle course)
 receives some of the eroded material.
 It is usually characterized by wide floodplains and meandering

channel patterns.
 Longitudinal slope of the stream gradually stops.
 tributaries join the main stream, and therefore sudden changes

of flow regime will occur.
 Erosion and deposition are more or less in equilibrium.
 Stream characteristics obtained from the middle course are

frequently used as basis for design of stream training projects.
Zone 3, the depositional zone (or Lower course)
 Longitudinal slope flattens.
 discharge increases.
 the primary depositional zone.
 gradual deposition of sediment eroded upstream, hence

relatively short-period shifting and changing of the main
stream channel.
 It is important to note that erosion, transfer, and deposition

occur in all zones, but the zone concept focuses on the most
dominant process.
1.3. River Morphology
 The term river morphology is used to describe the shape of the

river channel and how it changes in shape and direction over time.
 The morphology of a river channel is a function of a number of
processes and environmental conditions, including the
composition and erodibility of the bed and banks (e.g. sand, clay,
bedrock); erosion comes from the power and consistency of the
current, and can affect the formation of the river’s path.
River Morphology Cont…
 Also, vegetation and the rate of plant growth;
 the availability of the sediment;
 the size and composition of the sediment moving through the
channel;
 the rate of sediment transport through the channel and
 the rate of deposition on the floodplain, banks, bars and bed;
and regional aggradation or degradation due to subsidence or
uplift.
 River morphology can also be affected by human interaction,
which is a way the river responds to a new factor in how the
river can change its course.
 An example of human induced change in river morphology is
dam construction, which alters the ebb flow of fluvial water
and sediment, therefore creating or shrinking estuarine
channels.
Cont…
 Meandering
 Once a bend in the river has been developed either due to its
own characteristics or due to the impressed external forces, the
process continues further downstream.
 Shoals are built up on the convex side due to secondary
currents.
 The formation of these shoals on the convex side causes
further shifting of the concave side because of erosion.
 The successive bends of reverse order are formed and it
ultimately leads to the development of complete S curve
called meander.
Cont…
 When a large number of such consecutive curves of reverse

order connected by short straight reaches (called crossings)
have been developed, the river is called a meander river.
Mechanism of meander development
 The development of meander is a highly complex
phenomenon.
 Various investigators studied the problem in the past and gave
their own theories. Some of these theories are explained below
InglisTheory:- According to Inglis the development of meander
is explained as follows. When there is heavy load of bed
material in movement during floods, excess turbulent energy is
developed, due to unevenness of bed and in such condition
symmetrical axial flow is not maintained and flow tends to
concentrate towards one of the banks. The bank towards which
the flow concentrates resists the component of velocity
causing the flow towards itself and converts part of its kinetic
energy into pressure energy, which results in increasing the
water level near this.
Cont…
InglisTheory…
This pressure head causes a cross currents of bottom water towards other bank
which leads to the deposition of bed material towards that bank. To replace the
bottom water surface water from the center and inner bank develops a curved
diving flow towards the outer bank accompanied by a forced vortex condition.
This leads to the under cutting of the bank near its toe and falling down of this
material into river. The slipping of material occurs more frequently
when the river stage is falling because the soil in the bank is saturated. The
material eroded from the outer bank moves towards the inner bank and gets
deposited there.
Thus there is continuous embayment on the outer side and shoal formation on
the inner side till equilibrium is attained.
The equilibrium conditions reflect the total effect of the varying discharges and
sediment loads of the river during the year
Cont…
• Friedkins Theory: According to Friedkins, meandering occurs
because of local bank erosion and consequent overloading and
deposition by the river of the heavier sediments which move
along the bed. In other words a bank is locally scoured which
results in the excess silt charge. This excess silt charge is
deposited on the same bank a little further downstream
because it cannot be carried by river. Meandering occurs
because of this deposition. However Inglis does not agree with
Friedkin. Inglis considers Friedkins theory to be a possible
cause of secondary meandering, but not the primary
meandering. Inglis used model tests to demonstrate this fact.
Cont…
• Joglekars Theory: According to Joglekars and his associates
the primary cause of meandering is excess of sediments in
river during floods. This sediment load being in excess of the
load carrying capacity of the river is deposited on the bed.
Consequently the river tends to built-up a steeper slope which
causes a reduction in depth of water. There is a corresponding
increase in the width of the river channel. If the banks do not
resists erosion. Even when there is a slight deviation from
uniform axial flow more flow occurs towards one bank than
the other. Additional flow is immediately attracted towards that
bank. It leads to the shoal formation at the other bank, and
accentuates the curvature of flow and finally a meander is
formed.
Meander parameters and their relationships
 Meanders can be classified as regular or irregular.

 If there is a series of bends approximately the same curvature
and frequency the meander is said to be regular.
 On the other hand if the meanders are irregular and deformed
in shape and vary in amplitude and frequency they are said to
be irregular.
 Meanders may be classified as simple or compound. If the
bend has a single radius of curvature, it is called simple.
 On the other hand, a compound meander is made of segment
of different radii and varying angles.

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CH 1 River Eng (Desu)

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Chapter One

1. River Development and Training

Fig.1.2 Delta formation

Fig.1.3 Plan form rivers

Fig.1.5 Typical braided reach of a river

As the river flows from its origin in a mountain to a sea, it passes

Fig.1.6 Stages of rivers

a). Rocky stage: it is also called the hilly or mountainous stage

Fig.1.7 Aggrading River

Fig.1.8 Degrading River

Fig.1.9 Stable River

The behaviors of alluvial rivers depend to a large extent on the

Especially the meandering causes the river to leave its original

i. Flow in a straight reach: the river cross section is in the

Fig.1.10 Straight Reach

iii. Development of Meanders:-

The following Table shows the tentative relationships between

Where W= width of river

 For natural rivers the discharge which determines the meander

Where; Q dominant = ½ to 2/3 of Q max

 The most conspicuous aspect of a river channel, apart from

 At very high discharges a river channel overflows its banks

 Hence, a catchment area is always connected to a certain point

Figure : Watershed drainage patterns.

Figure: Stream ordering in a drainage network.

1. Channel-forming (or dominant) discharge: Is a discharge that over long

 However, there is no method for directly calculating channel-forming discharge.

 An estimate of channel-forming discharge for a particular stream reach can, with

 It is usually characterized by wide floodplains and meandering

 Longitudinal slope of the stream gradually stops.

 tributaries join the main stream, and therefore sudden changes

 Erosion and deposition are more or less in equilibrium.

 Stream characteristics obtained from the middle course are

 the primary depositional zone.

 gradual deposition of sediment eroded upstream, hence

 It is important to note that erosion, transfer, and deposition

 The term river morphology is used to describe the shape of the

 When a large number of such consecutive curves of reverse

 Meanders can be classified as regular or irregular.

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