Advanced Digital

Communication
Topics
 Diversity
 Diversity Techniques
 Diversity Combining Techniques
Diversity
 Diversity schemes provides two or more inputs
at the receiver such that the fading
phenomena among these inputs are
uncorrelated
 If one radio path undergoes deep fade at a
particular point in time, another independent
(or at least highly uncorrelated) path may have
a strong signal at that input
 If probability of a deep fade in one channel is
p, then the probability for N channels is pN
Diversity Systems: Basic Principles and
Classifications
 Basic Concept
- Same Information is Sent over Independent Fading Paths
- Signals are Combined to Mitigate the Effects of Fading

 Design Issues
- Methods to Obtain Diversity Branches
- Diversity Combining Methods

 Different Classifications
- Receiver versus Transmitter
- Predetection versus Postdetection
- Microscopic versus Macroscopic
Diversity Systems: Basic
Principles and Classifications
 Diversity requirements
 Multiple branches
 Low correlation between branches

 Macro Diversity: to mitigate the effects of

shadowing
 Micro Diversity: to mitigate effects of
multipath fading
Diversity Techniques
Diversity Techniques
 Antenna Diversity
 Space Diversity
 Field Component Diversity (Antenna Pattern
Diversity)
 Polarization Diversity Angle Diversity (Direction
Diversity)
 Frequency Diversity
 Time Diversity
 Multipath Diversity
Diversity Techniques
 Orthogonal Transmit Diversity (OTD)
 Space-Time (S-T) Diversity
 Space-Frequency (S-F) Diversity
 Space-Time-Frequency (S-T-F) Diversity
 Open Loop Transmit Diversity (for 3G)
 Closed Loop Transmit Diversity (for 3G)
Methods to Obtain Diversity Branches

 Space
- The space correlation properties of the radio channel are used as
mean of providing multiple uncorrelated copies of the same signal
More hardware (antennas)
Using antennas spaced enough at Tx or Rx. Multiple antenna elements
spaced apart by decorrelation distance. Most common form of diversity.
No additional power or bandwidth.

 Frequency
- Multiple narrowband channels separated by channel coherence
bandwidth. Less often used. Wasteful of scarce spectrum.

 Polarization
- Using antennas with different polarization. Two antennas (one
horizontally, the other vertically polarized) are used. Orthogonal
polarization in wireless channels exhibit uncorrelated fading. Only two-
branch diversity possible. Not common.
Methods to Obtain Diversity Branches

 Angle of Arrival
-Directional antennas facing widely different directions. Scattered signal
from different directions having approximately independent fading.

 Time
- Transmission of the same information in time slots separated by
channel coherence time. Inefficient for high-speed transmissions.
Useless for stationary users.

 Multipath
- Same as Time-diversity, except that branches are provided by channel
through multipath. Takes advantage of channel provided usually
undesirable multipath echoes. Principle of Rake Receivers.
Space Diversity
 Receiver Diversity
 M different antennas are used at the receiver to
obtain independent fading signals
 Transmit Diversity
 M different antennas are used at the transmitter to
obtain uncorrelated fading signals at the receiver
 The total transmitted power is split among the
antennas
Block interleaving
 Example:
 If bit stream is 1 2 3 4 …… 12
 After block interleaving
Frequency Diversity
 Send the signal over multiple carriers
separated in frequency by more than the
coherence bandwidth

 FH-SS is a special case of frequency diversity

 Different copies undergo independent fading
 Only one antenna is needed
 The total transmitted power is split among the
carriers
Time Diversity
 Interleave the repeated bits over a duration
longer than the coherence time
 Transmit the desired signal in M different
periods of time i.e., each symbol is transmitted
M times
 The interval between transmission of same
symbol should be at least the coherence time
(Δt)c
 Different copies undergo independent fading
 Reduction in efficiency (effective data rate <
real data rate)
Diversity Combining Techniques
 Diversity Combining Techniques

 Selection Combining (SC)

- Strongest signal is selected. Cophasing not required.

 Threshold (Switching) Combining

- Signal above a given threshold is used. Switching to a different branch if it
drops below the threshold.

 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)

- Signals are cophased and summed after optimal weighting proportional to
individual SNR’s. Goal is to maximize SNR at the combiner output.

 Equal Gain Combining (EGC)

- Branch signals are cophased and added (Maximal Ratio with equal weights).
 Linear Diversity Combining

 Individual branches are weighed by αi and summed

 Selection and Threshold Combining: all αi = 0,
except one. Cophasing not required
 Maximal Ratio Combining: αi function of γi. Co-
phasing required
 Equal Gain: αi = 1. Co-phasing required
Array and Diversity Gains

 Array Gain
- Gain in SNR from coherent addition of signals and non-coherent
addition (averaging) of noise over multiple antennas
- Gain in both fading and non-fading channels

 Diversity Gain
- Gain in SNR due to elimination of weak signals (deep fades).
Changes slope of probability of error.
- Gains in fading channels
Selection Combining
 Monitor all M branches at a time and select
the branch with highest SNR to receive the
signal
Selection Combining
 Combiner outputs the signal with the highest
SNR ri 2 / N i
 The chance that all the branches are in deep
fade simultaneously is very low.
 Since at each instant only one signal is used
co-phasing is not required.
Selection Combining
P  ( )  p(    )  p(max[  1 ,,  M ]   )
M
 p( 1       M   )   p( i   )
i 1

(Assuming independent branches)

For iid Rayleigh fading (ri Rayleigh, γi exponential):

M
P  ( )   (1  e  /  i )  (1  e  /  ) M
i 1
  E ( i ), same for all branches
dP  ( ) M
p  ( )   (1  e  /  ) M 1 e  / 
d 
Selection Combining
 M
1
    p  ( )d   
0 i 1 i
Pout ( 0 )  p(    0 )  P  ( 0 )  (1  e  0 /  ) M

 The average SNR gain (array gain) increases

with M, but not linearly.
Threshold (Switching) Combining

 Branches are scanned sequentially. First one

above a given threshold is selected. The signal
is used as long as its SNR is above threshold.
 Since at each instant only one signal is used,
co-phasing is not required.
Maximum Ratio Combining
 The signals from all branches are weighted
and then summed together

ri = ais + ni
 Where s is transmitted signal, n is the noise
i

process and gi are the weights

Equal Gain Combining

 Similar to MRC with the weights area all equal to 1

 No need to estimate the channel gain for each
branch
 The average SNR is given by
Diversity SNR gains
Main Points
 Diversity overcomes the effects of flat fading by
combining multiple independent fading paths
 Diversity typically entails some penalty in terms of
rate, bandwidth, complexity, or size.
 Different combining techniques offer different
levels of complexity and performance.