Economic Minerals

GOLD

 The economic gold minerals consist only of native gold

and minor amounts of gold tellurides, electrum (gold +
silver) and amalgam (gold + mercury). The other
sources of gold are the gold-quartz, gold-sulphide lodes
and the alluvial placers. Gold is also recovered as an
important by-product from copper, nickel, lead and zinc
ores.

 The common gangue mineral of gold is quartz.

 Gold is commonly associated with silver.

 Gold Uses
 Gold is used as bullion in reserve to balance the issue of
currency notes by a Government.

 Another use is Ornamentation, chiefly jewellery. The

common jewellery gold is an alloy of pure gold with
copper, silver or nickel. Its purity is designated in
‘Carats’ one carat means 1 part of gold in 24 parts;
Purest form is one of 24 carats.

 Industries uses of gold are becoming important due to

its special properties like malleability, ductility, decorative
colour, high electrical conductivity and resistance to
corrosion. Gold has a hardness of 2. 5 to 3 and Sp. Gr.
of 19.
Origin:

Most gold deposits originate through igneous emanations

or surficial concentrations. Most of the gold deposits have
been formed by hydrothermal solutions.

Occurrence:

The metallic or native gold is found as scattered grains, in

rocks of various types

World Distribution:

About 70% of the world’s gold production is from the

famous Johannesburg deposits. Witwatersrand region of
Transvoal in “South Africa”. The other major producers of
gold are: U.S.S.R., Canada, U.S.A., Ghana, Papus, New
Guinea, Philippines, Australia and Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe).
INDIAN DISTRIBUTION:

Gold is widely distributed in India but not in

workable quantities. Kolar gold fields and Hutti
mines in Karnataka are the producing centers of
gold. Ramagiri gold field of Andhra Pradesh is
revived.

KOLAR GOLD FIELDS:

These fields lie in the central part of a 80 km

long, 3 to 4 km wide schistose belt known as the
“Kolar schist belt.”
 Hutti gold fields:

The mines situated around Hutti, 80 kms west of Raichur.

Ramagiri gold field (Anantapur District in A.P.) lies within the

Penukonda –Pamidi Schist belt.

The mining areas in Ramagiri have been identified as Jambamanu,

Yappamanu, Yerrappa and Gantlappa.

It is planned to produce 50,000 tonnes of gold bearing quartz ore in

the first year at the rate of 250 tonnes a day and this would be
increased to 75,000 tonnes in the following year. Another prospective
field in A.P. is Chigarakunta area in Chittoor district.

The other important gold fields are:

 Gadag goldfield, Karnataka

 Wynaad goldfield, Tamilnadu
 Kundrakocha gold field, Lowa field, Bihar
 Copper

Copper, Lead and Zinc are the most important non ferrous
metals. They are also called base metals.

The Copper of commerce occurs in several forms and in a

variety of minerals, Mineralogically, Copper Ores are divided
in to four groups: native, sulphide, Oxidized and complex.

The sulphide ores are the most valuable;

 Copper
Ores Minerals Composition Percent of Copper

Native Native copper Cu 100

Sulphides Chalcopyrite Cu. Fe. S2 34.5

Bornite Cu6 Fe, S4 63.3
Chalcolite Cu2 S 79.87
Covellite Cu S 66.4

Oxidized Cuprite Cu2 O 88.8

Tenorite Cu O 79.8
Malachite Cu Co3 Cu (OH)2 57.3
 Copper
 The Chief gangue minerals of copper ores are
quartz, calcite, and dolomite.
 In general copper sulphide ores are associated
with intrusions of quartz monzonite and related
rocks.
 Uses: Copper is one of the very essential
minerals in modern industry due to its high
electrical and thermal conductivity. Most wires
and electrical equipment are made of pure
copper and considerable alloy copper is used,
chiefly as brass (copper-zinc) and bronze
(copper-tin-zinc). Copper compounds are used
in the preparation of insecticides.
Origin:

 Most copper deposits have been formed by hydrothermal solutions.

 Many deposits have been almost completely converted to oxidized
compounds.
 The sulphide ores of copper are unstable in the presence of
weathering agencies with the result that the copper sulphides
become decomposed in the weathering zone near the surface and
give rise to the characteristic green and blue (azurite) carbonates of
copper, which are the usual indicators (gossans) for a copper
deposit.

World Distribution:

The chief producing countries are:

U.S.A., Chile, Zembia, Canada, U.S.S.R., Zaire, Peru, Australia,

South Africa, Japan, Philippines, China, Mexico, Yugoslavia and S.W.
Africa.
Indian Distribution:

Copper is distributed widely in India, but important deposits are few. The
important deposits are mainly in Bihar, Rajasthan, A.P. Karnataka, T.N.
Gujarat and Sikkim M.P.

The Singhbum Copper Belt of Bihar;

There are six mines from south to north viz. Badia, Dhobani, Mosaboni,
Pathargora, South Surda and Surda. The main sulphides are chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite and pyrite.

The Khetri copper belt of Rajasthan:

The important mining centres are Khetri, Kolihan, Chandamari and Dariba.
In A.P. the Agnigundala (Guntur Dt.) mineralized belt and Mailaram
(Khammam Dt.) belt are the important centres. Three major deposits are
indicated in this belt. These are around, Bandalamottu, Nallakonda and
Dhukonda. Chalcopyrite is the main ore mineral. Occurrences of Copper
deposits are also located in the Ganti-kalva area of Kurnool dt.,
Garimanipenta (Nellore dt.) and Gajjalakonda (Prakasam dt.).
 In Tamilnadu, Copper deposits associated with Zinc are reported from
Mamandur in South Arcot dt.
 In Karnataka, the copper deposits occur around Chitradurga. The major
ore mineral is Chalcopyrite.
 In M.P. a large deposit around Malanjkhand has been reported. The
major ore minerals here are chalcopyrite, pyrite.
 Lead and Zinc
Next to Copper, Lead and Zinc are important base metals. Despite
chemical dissimilarity, geological conditions favour the formation of lead
and zinc together. The association of lead and zinc is so general that the
two are considered together.
Ores Lead percent

LEAD
Gelena Pbs 86.6
Cerussite Pb.Co 77.5
Anglesite Pb.So4 68.3

Zinc Zinc Percent

Zincblende Zn.S 67
(Sphalerite)
Smithsonite Zn. Co3 52
Zincite Zn. O 80.3
Hemimorphite Zn4 Sl2 O 54.2
(Calamine) (OH)2, H2 O
Uses:
 Lead is used in storage batteries, ammunition,
electrical cabbles, pipes, solder and red and
white lead (Pigments).
 Zinc is used mostly in galvanizing (coating steel
surfaces with molten zinc), die castings,
automobile parts, alloyed with copper to form
brass, wire, tubes, pipes, chemicals and rolling.
Origin:
 Most lead and zinc occur as cavity fillings and
replacements formed by low temperature
hydrothermal solutions.
World Distribution:
 The leading producers of lead and zinc in the
world are: U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Australia, Canada,
Mexico and Peru
Indian Distribution:

In India, although several occurrence have been reported

bulk of the ore comes from Zawar belt in Udaipur dt., of
Rajasthan. There are three mineralized locations around
Zawar - the Mocha Magra, Baraj Magra and Zawar Malai
hills. The principal ore minerals are galena and sphalerite
with the other metallic sulphides such as pyrrhotite,
arsenopyrite, purite, Chalcopyrite, and to a lesser extent
argentite. The common gangue minerals are galena and
sphalerite with the other metallic sulphides such as
pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and to a
lesser extent argentite. The common gangue minerals
are quartz, dolomite and gypsum.
 In the Darlba – Rajpura area (Bhilwara dt.) a good
deposit has been reported. In A.P., the lead deposits of
Bandalamottu and Dhukonda blocks of agnigundala
deposit of Guntur dt., Are important. . Here, the galena
occurs in veins and stringers along with small amounts
of chalcopyrite, sphalerite and pyrite. In Cuddapah dt.,
lead-zinc ores have been reported to occur near
Zanngamrajupalle-Varikunta-Chinna Orampadu. In
Sargipalli area of Orissa, galena deposits are found.
 Mineralization of Pb-Zn has also been indicated in
Bhotang (Rangpoo) deposits of Sikkim, Ambamata of
Gujarat.

RESERVES:
 The total reserves have been estimated at about 36
crore tones.
 Aluminium
 Aluminium is one of the most important non-ferrous and light
metals used in modern industry.

Ores:

 Aluminium is obtained commercially almost entirely from a mixture

of minerals commonly referred to as “Bauxite”. It is named after a
place, Les Beaux in France where it was first discovered.
 Bauxite is not a mineral species but a colloidal mixture of hydrous
oxides of aluminium, Iron and water.

The aluminium hydroxides present in the bauxite ore are:

 Diaspore and Boehmite - Al2 O3 H2 O (Al2 O3 – 85%,

Al – 45%)
 Gibbsite - Al2 O3 3H2 O (Al2 O3 –
65.4%, Al – 34.6%)
 Bauxite - Al2 O3 2H2 O (Al2 O3 –
73.9%, Al – 39.1%)
Uses:

 The lightness of aluminium, its high strength compared with its

weight, its resistance to atmospheric corrosion, and its electrical
conductivity make it a popular modern metal. It is a desired metal
for airplane, motor vehicles, trains, machinery, building materials
and electrical appliances.
 Aluminium is replacing iron or steel in the transportation industry;
 Bauxite is used in the manufacture of refractories, abrasives and
chemicals.

Origin:

 ‘Bauxite’ minerals are formed mostly by weathering of aluminous

rocks. Conditions favourable for the formation of bauxite are: (1)
Warm tropical climate (2) abundant rainfall
 During weathering, the bauxite becomes enriched in aluminium by
removal of most of the other elements in the parent rocks mainly by
solution by sub-surface water.
World Distribution:

 The important Aluminium producing countries are; Australia, U.S.A., Jamaica, Surinam, Guinea and
U.S.S.R.

Indian distribution:

 In India,The chief producing deposits are in Bihar, M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Karnataka,
Orissa, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and Goa.

 In Bihar, extensive deposits are found in Ranchi and Palamau districts.

 In Madhya Pradesh, the major deposits of bauxite are found in the districts of Surguja, Raigarh and
Bilaspur; The Katni area of Jabalpur district; The Malwa Plateaux in Bhopal, Gunna, Shajjapur districts;
and Bailadila Range inn Bastar district.

 Maharashtra has some of the largest deposits of bauxite in India. The Kolaba and Kothapur districts
are the important contributors. Ratnagiri and Satara dts. are also the producing centres.

 The Gujarat deposits are mainly from Jamnagar dt. In addition, a number of deposits have also been
reported from kutch area.

 In Karnataka, the principal deposits of bauxite occur in the Belgaum dt.

 In Tamilnadu gibbbsitic bauxite deposits had been found in the following localities:
– Eastern portion of the Nilgiri hills.
– Plateau portion of the Palni hills and
– Shevaroy hills near Yarchaud in Salem dt.
 In Orissa, bauxite deposits occur in koraput, kalahanndi
and Sambalpur dts.
 In A.P., the reserves of Bauxite have been located in the
Dumkonda hill in the East Godavari dt, and in the
Galikonda, Rakatakonda, Katuki, Chittamgundi and
Kottavalsa areas of Visakhapatnam dt. In the Galikonda
range near Anantagiri, an extensive deposit of workable
grade of bauxite is indicated. Here the bauxite is
gibbsite type; Al2 O3 is about 50%.
 The East Coast Bauxite Deposit, viz, Orissa and A.P.,
has been identified as one of the world’s richest
deposits.

Reserves:

 The reserves of bauxite of all grades have been

estimated at 250 crore tones, of which East coast
Bauxite consists of 200 crore tones.
 Iron

 Iron is the second most abundant metal in the earth’s crust’ next to
Aluminium. The discovery of the iron was beginning of the great
industrial age.

 Mineral Comp. Fe.Percent


 Magnetite Fe O.Fe2 O3 72.4
Magnetic or black ore
 Hematite Fe2 O3 70
Red Ore
 Limonite Fe2 O3.nH2 O 59-63
Brown Ore
 Siderite Fe.Co3 48.2
Black band, clay-iron
stone.
 Of the iron ore minerals, magnetite is the richest but of minor
quantity; hematite is the mainstay of the iron industry.

Association:

 Common impurities in iron ores are silica, calcium carbonate,

phosphorous, manganese (especially in hermatite), sulphur,
alumina, water and titanium.

Uses:

 Iron is the backbone of modern civilization. It is not surprising to

find that iron and steel industry is of basic importance to a
country’s economy. Man has to depend upon iron in homes, farms,
machines, automobiles, trains, ships and construction material.
When iron or steel is not suitable for certain uses, it is alloyed with
other substances to make it suitable.
 Apart from the production of iron and steel, magnetite is used in
heavy-media coal washeries, micaceous hematite is used in paints
and coating for electric welding rods, soft impure varieties of
hematite and limonite are used in mineral paints.
 World Distribution:
 The major iron ore producing countries in the world are: U.S.S.R.,
Australia, U.S.A., Brazil, China, France, Canada and Sweden apart
from India.
 Indian distribution:
 India has around 60% of world’s high grade ore reserves. Of the
three types of deposits (magnetitic, hematitic and limonitic), the
hematitic variety consisting about 80% of the total reserves is of
considerable importance because of its high grade quality.
 The most important iron ore (hematite) fields of India are confined
to the states of Bihar, Orissa, M.P., Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
 Bihar and Orissa:
 The hill ranges covering parts of singhbhum dt. (Bihar) and
Keonjhar, Bonal, Mayurbhunj, sundergarh and Cuttack dts. (Orissa)
form the major mining region. The “Chirla” deposit in Bihar is the
largest single iron ore deposit in the country with an estimated
reserve of about 2,000 metric tonnes.
 In A.P. The hematite deposits occur in Ananthpur, Chittor,
(Sirasanambedu), Cuddapah (Rajampeta), Khammam (Between
Veludurti and Ramallakota), Nellore, and Warangal Districts.
 In Rajasthan bands of hematite schists are found in the
Siker, Udaipur and Jaipur districts.
 In Karnataka the deposits are in Bababudan hills
(Chickmagalur dt.), Sandur hills (Bellary dt.), Tumkur,
Chitaldurg and Shimoga dts.
 In Maharastra, deposits occur mainly in Ratnagiri,
Bhandara and Chanda dts. In Ratnagiri dt. The important
deposit is Redi.
 In M.P. the deposits occur in Bailadila range (Fe-65%)
hills in Durg dt. Mainly the ore produced from this area
is meant for export to Japan.
 Magnetite deposits occur in Bihar (Singhbhum dt.),
Orissa (Mayurbhanj dt.), Tamilnadu (Salem and Trichy
dts.), H.P. (Mandi dt.) and West Bengal (Bankura dt.)
 In Karnataka, extensive deposits of magnetite are known
Between Kundremukh and Gangamula of Malnad area.
 In A.P., bands of magnetite occur in parts of Prakasham
dt.
 Manganese

Manganese is the most important of the

Ferro – alloy metals. Under Ferro-alloy
heading are included a group of important
metals whose chief use is for alloying with
iron to yield special steels of desired
properties. They include Manganese,
Nickel, Chromium, Molybdenum,
Tungsten, Vanadium, cobalt and titanium.
Mineral Composition Mn. Percent

Pyrolusite B-Mn O2 63

Psilomelane Mn. O MnO2 2H2O 45-60 Epigenetic

Manganite Mn2O3. H2O 62.4

Hausmannite Mn3 O4 72.5

Vredenburgite 3 Mn3 O4. 2 fe2 O3 72

Rhodochrosite MnCo 47.6

Occurrence:

 There are two types of manganese deposits occur in India.

 One is Gondite type and second one is kodurite type.

 Gondite type manganese deposits are distributed in Balaghat,

Chhindwara and jhabua districts of M.P., Bhandara and Nagpur dts.
Of Maharastra; Baroda and Panchmahal dts. Of Gujarat; Banaswara
dt. Of Rajasthan and Sundergarh dt. Of Orissa.

 Kodurite type manganese deposits are located only along the

eastern coast of the country near Vizianagaram, Srikakulam and
other places in A.P., Ganjam, Koraput, Kalahandi, Parts of Orissa in
the Kondalite rock bearing areas. These are generally of ferruginous
type and of less importance compared to the gondite type.

 Manganese deposits also occurs in Singhbhum-Bonai-Keonjar areas

of Bihar and Orissa and In shimoga, Chitradurg, Tumkur, Bellary,
North Kanara and Belgaum dts. Of Karnataka.
Uses:
 Manganese is the most important of the ferroalloy metals. It is
necessary not only for the making of high manganese steels but it is
also an absolute essential in the making of all carbon steel. Its chief
purpose in steel making is to remove oxygen and sulphur in order to
produce sound and clean metal. It is added in the form of
‘ferromanganese’ (80% Mn),

 Manganese steel used where hardness and toughness are desired.

Manganese ore of high purity is required for dry batteries, the glass
industry, paints, pigments, dyes and fertilizers.

World Distribution:
 The U.S.S.R. contributes 40% to the world’s production of
manganese ore. The other leading producers are; India, Republic of
South Africa, Ghana, Brazil, Australia and Cuba.

Indian Distribution:
 Indian Manganese ore is hard, lumpy and quite suitable for
metallurgical industries. Manganese deposits are chiefly distributed
in M.P., Maharashtra, Orissa, A.P., Bihar, Karnataka, Goa, Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
M.P.and Maharashtra Manganese Belt:

 In this belt the manganese ore is found in Chhindwara and Balaghat

dts. Of M.P. and Nagpur dts. of maharastra . The manganese
bearing formation in this belt is termed as Gondite.
 This belt is the major producer of ferromanganese grade ore in
India.
 The important occurrences are Garividi, Kodur, Duvvum, Devads,
Sandanandapuram, Garbham, Garraraju, Chipurupalle and
Avagudem.
 In A.P., the ore deposits are associated with the Khondalite group in
Viziayanagaram and srikakulum dts., where Kodur, Garividi and
Garbham areas are the chief producing centers. Ferruginous
manganese ores are also known to occur in Salur and parvatipuram
taluks.

Bihar and Orissa belt:

 The deposits of Bihar and Orissa are distributed in Singhbhum dt. Of
Bihar and Sundergarh, Keonjhar, koraput and kalahandi districts of
Orissa.
 In Andhra Pradesh the manganese deposits are
associated with the Khandalite group in Vizianagarm and
Srikakulam districts. The chief producing centres are
Kodur, Garividi and Gopalapatnam areas. Ferruginous
manganese ores are also occur in Salur and
Parvathipuram areas.
 In Karnataka, the deposits occur in Sandur, N Kanara,
Thumkur and Shimoga region.
 In Goa manganese deposits found in the Pernem and
Barder areas. The principal ores are pyrolusite and
psilomelane.
 In Gujarat the important deposits are in PanchMahal
and Baroda dts.
 In Rajasthan, low to medium grade deposits are in
Bhanawara and Udaipur dts.
 Chromium

Chromium was formerly used mainly in refractories, but since the

rapid development of stainless steel it has become a prized steel
alloy.
Ore : The only ore of Chromium is Chromite – Fe. O. Cr2 O3 Theoretically, it
carries 68% Cr2 O3 (46.6% Cr) and 32% Fe O.
Commercial ores should contain 45% Cr2 O3. The Chrome-Iron ratio should
be above 2. 5 : 1 for metallurgical chrome.
Origin and Occurrence:
Almost all chromite deposits are magmatic segregations in ultra basic igneous
rocks. Chromite as rock-forming minerals, is closely associated with Mg and Ni
in ultramatic rocks. Chromite occurs in the host rock as masses, lenses and
disseminations.
Uses:
 The main uses of Chromium are in the metallurgical,
refractories, and chemical industries. The metallurgical
uses include a great variety of alloys mainly with iron,
nickel and cobalt. In stainless steels the Cr. Percentage
is 12-18 and in super stainless steel 12 – 30. Chromium
imparts to alloys strength, toughness, hardness and
resistance to oxidation, corrosion, electrical conductivity.
Chromium is used in the form of ferrochrome for
ferroalloys and chrome steels. Chromium plating has
become more popular than nickel plating.
 As refractory, the mineral chromite is widely used for
furnace linings and chemical compounds are used for
dyeing, tanning, bleaching, pigments and oxidizing
agents.
World Distribution:
 The World’s leading producers of chromite are the
U.S.S.R., Republic of South Africa, Philippines, Zimbadwe
and Turkey.
Indian Distribution:

 In India the main occurrences are in Orissa, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, Bihar, A.P. and T.N.

 In Orissa, the Chromite deposits are chiefly distributed in the

Sukinda area (Cuttack dt.) Nausahi area (Keonjhar dt.) and
Maraubil & Maulabhaja areas (Dhenkanal dt.) The deposits in
Cuttack dt. are of high grade with 40 – 50% Cr2 O3. The Orissa
deposits are of metallurgical and chemical grades.

 In Karnataka, good grade chromite has been reported in the Hassan

dt. In the Byrapur area, two large lenses of chromite are found. In
Mysore dt. Occurrences of chromite are traced around Shinduvalli,
Talur, Gorur, Dodkattur and Dodkanya. The Shinduvalli Chromite
has 48% to 56% Cr2 O3. Besides these two producing districts,
Chromite deposits are also distributed in Chital drug and Kadur dts.
 In Maharashtra, chromite is worked around Pauni in
Bhandara dt. The ore is of variable comp. with Cr2O3
between 35% and 50%. Chromite also occurs in
Ratnagiri dt. (around Kankauli and Vagda areas). On
the average this ore contains 31 to 38% of Cr2O3
 In Singhbhum dt of Bihar, Chromite occurs in 4 hills –
Roroburu, kinsiburu, Kittaburu and Chittangburu. The
Cr2 O3 is around 53%.
 In A.P. Chromite deposits are distributed in Krishna,
Khammam and West Godavari dts. The chromite
deposits in Krishna dt. are reported around kondapalle
hill ranges. Cr2 O3 varies from 39 to 55%. In
Khammam dt the chromite occurs near Bhimavaram,
Gauraram, Jannavaram and imamnagar areas. Low-
grade chromite is reported from Enukonda (tekeru) in
the West Godavari dt. in Tamilnadu, chromite is reported
around Sitampundi (Salem dt.) The average Cr2 O3 is
21%.
Reserves:
 The total reserves of chromite are about 12.9 (12.9
crores) tones.