Discrete Structures (CSC 102)

Mr. Junaid Ali

FUUAST Islamabad
Arguments
An argument is a sequence of statements. All statements
but the final one are called premises (or assumptions
or hypotheses). The final statement is called the
conclusion.
The symbol “∴” read as " therefore," is normally placed
just before the conclusion.

Example
If Socrates is a human being, then Socrates is mortal
Socrates is human being.
∴Socrates is mortal
Valid argument

To say that an argument form is valid means that no

matter what particular statements are substituted for
the statements variables in its premises, if the
resulting premises are all true, then the conclusion is
also true.
Identifying the Valid Argument

• Identify the premises and conclusion.

• Construct the truth table.

• Find the critical rows in which all premises are true.

• In each critical row, determine whether the

conclusion of the argument is also true.
Examples
Consider the following example:

p →r

q →r

∴ p∨q →r

The truth table shows that in every situation

represented by 1,3,5,7 and 8 in which all premises
are true, the conclusion is also true.
Therefore argument is valid.
 Invalid Argument

Consider the following example:

p →q˅r
¬qv¬r
∴ ¬ p v ¬r

Considering the critical rows, in row 3 the premises

are True but the conclusion is false so the arguments
is invalid.
 Modus Ponens
Consider the following argument of the form
If P then Q
P
∴Q
The fact that this argument form is valid is called Modus Ponens.
Example:
If the last digit of this number is 0, then this number is divisible by 10.
the last digit of this number is 0
∴ This number is divisible by 10.
 Modus Tollens
Consider the following argument of the form
If P then Q
¬Q
∴¬P
Example:
If Zeus is human, then Zeus is mortal.
Zeus is not mortal.
∴Zeus is not human
The fact that this argument form is valid is called
modus tollens.
Recognizing Modus Ponens & Modus Tollens

If there are more pigeons than there are pigeon holes,

then two pigeons roost in the same hole.
there are more pigeons than there are pigeon holes.
∴ Two pigeons roost in the same hole.
MODUS PONENS
If this number is divisible by 2, then this number is
divisible by 6
This number is not divisible by 6
∴ this number is not divisible by 2.
MODUS TOLLENS
Disjunctive Addition

The following argument forms are valid.

If p is True then more generally, “p or q” is True for any other
statement q.
p
∴pvq or q
∴ pvq
We call this sort of arguments Disjunctive Addition.
Conjunctive Simplification

The following argument forms are valid.

If p is True then more generally, “p or q” is True for any other
statement q.
p∧q
∴p or p∧q
∴q

Suppose that “it is snowing” and “it is Cloudy” is True. Using

conjunctive rule, what conclusion can be drawn
p: it is snowing.
q: it is cloudy
Therefore
“it is snowing”
Disjunctive Syllogism

The following argument forms are valid.

If p is True then more generally, “p or q” is True for any other
statement q.
pvq or pvq
¬q ¬p
∴p ∴q

Example suppose i have 10 or 20 rupees note in my pocket, and i

don’t have 10 rupees note in my pocket. So what we can
conclude?
Solution:
Using p: I have 10 rupees note in my pocket and q:I have 20 rupees
note in my pocket. We are given
pvq
¬p
∴q
So we conclude q or “: i have 20 rupees note in my pocket.”
Hypothetical Syllogism

The following argument forms are valid.

p →q
q →r
∴ p →r
Example:
If 18,486 is divisible by 18, then 18,486 is divisible by 9,
If 18,486 is divisible by 9, then the sum of digits of
18,486 is divisible b 9.
∴ If 18,486 is divisible by 18, then the sum of digits
of 18,486 is divisible b 9.
Application

Let us consider the following Example which are true:

a. if my glasses or on the kitchen table(p), I saw them at
breakfast(q).
b. I was reading the news paper in the living room(r) or I was
reading the newspaper in the kitchen(s).
c. If I was reading the news paper in the living room(r) then
my glasses or on the coffee table(t).
d. I didn’t see my glasses at breakfast (q).
e. If I was reading my book in bed(u), then my glasses are on
the bed table(v).
f. If I was reading the newspaper in the kitchen (s), then my
glasses are on the kitchen table (p).
Solution:
p= my glasses or on the kitchen table.
q=I saw my glasses at breakfast.
r= I was reading the newspaper in the living room.
s= I was reading the newspaper in the kitchen.
t= My glasses re on the coffee table
u= I was reading book in my bed.
v= my glasses are on the bed table.

a: p → q. b: r v s
c: r → t. d: ¬ q
e: u →v f: s → p
Cont...

Question is where are the

glasses?
We have to translate the problem in the symbolic
language in order to find where are the glasses?
a: p → q b: r v s
c: r → t. d: ¬ q
e: u →v f: s → p

1. p → q (a)
¬ q (d)
∴¬p modus tollens

2. s → p (f)
¬ p by conclusion of (1)
∴¬s modus tollens
3. r v s (b)
¬s by conclusion of (2)
∴r by disjunctive syllogism
4. r → t (c)
r by conclusion of 3
∴t modus ponens
Therefore my glasses are on the coffee table.