1 ELASTIC SOLID k1 k2

The power of any spring L´

is in the same proportion
with the tension thereof.

Robert Hooke (1678)

k1

f L k2

f
f =kL
L´

Young (1805)

modulus

stress t t = G
1-1
strain
Uniaxial Extension

Natural rubber
G=3.9x105Pa

f
T11 =
a

L
extension  =
L
L - L
or strain  = =  1
a = area L

 1
T11 = G   2  
 

natural rubber G = 400 kPa

1-2
Shear gives different stress response

=0

 = -0.4

T21 = G
 = 0.4
T11  T22 = G 2
Silicone rubber G = 160 kPa
Goal: explain different results in extension and shear
obtain from Hooke’s Law in 3D
If use stress and deformation tensors 1-3
Rheologists use very simple T
1. Uniaxial Extension

T11 0 0
T =  0 0 0 T22 = T33 = 0
 0 0 0

or

T22
0 0 0 
T = 0  T22 0  T11 = 0
T33 0 0  T33 
T22 = T33

T11 -T22 causes deformation 1-4

Consider only normal stress components

T11 0 0
Tij =  0 T22 0 
 0 0 T33 

Hydrostatic Pressure T11 = T22 = T33 = -p

 p 0 0  1 0 0
Tij =  0  p 0  =  p 0 1 0
   
 0 0  p   0 0 1 
1 0 0
T =  pI I = 0 1 0 Then only tthe extra or viscous stresses
 
 0 0 1  cause deformation

TI = T T = -pI + t
If a liquid is and only the normal stress differences
incompressible cause deformation

G ≠ f(p) h ≠ f(p) T11 - T22 = t11 - t22 ≡ N1 (shear)

1-5
Rheologists use very simple T
2. Simple Shear T12
x̂2 x̂2

T21
x̂1 x̂1
T21 x̂3
x̂3

 0 0 0 0 T12 0 T12
Tij = T21 0 0 Tij = 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0 0 0
But to balance angular momentum T21 = T12

in general T = TT T T =  i  j (xi x jTij )T =  i  j xi x jT ji

tn = nˆ T = TT nˆ
Stress tensor for simple shear Only 3 components:
T11 T12 0  T12
Tij = T12 T22 0  T11 – T22 = t11 – t22 ≡ N1
 0 0 T33  T22 – T33 = t22 – t33 ≡ N2
1-6
 Stress Tensor Summary
1. t n = nˆ  T stress at point n
T11 T11
on any plane
2. in general T = f( time or rate, strain)
3. simple T for rheologically complex materials:
- extension and shear
4. T = pressure + extra stress = -pI + t.
5. τ causes deformation
6. normal stress differences cause deformation, t11-t22 = T11-T22
7. symmetric T = TT i.e. T12=T21

Hooke → Young → Cauchy → Gibbs

Einstein
(1678) (~1801) (1830’s) (1880,~1905)
 2

Q Deformation Gradient Tensor

Q

Motion
s
s’ is a vector connecting
s' two very close points in the
xˆ 1
P P material, P and Q
Rest or past state at t' Deformed or present state at t
xˆ 3
Q
Q
w′
s′ w
s
y′ P y P
s′ = w′ - y′ s=w–y
w’ = y’ + s’ w=y+s
a new tensor !
x = displacement function
x  xi
describes how material points move F= or Fij =
w = x ( w) = x ( y   s) x  xj
x
= x  y   s  Os
2

x y  s = w - y = F  s
= x(y )  F  s
1-8
= y  F  s
Apply F to Uniaxial Extension

Displacement functions describe how coordinates of P in undeformed state, xi‘

have been displaced to coordinates of P in deformed state, xi.

x1 Fij =  xi  x j =
x1 = x1 = 1 x1
x1  x1  x1 = 1  x1  x2 = 0  x1  x3 = 0 
x2   x  x = 0  x  x =   x  x = 0 
x2 = x2 =  2 x2  2 1 2 2 2 2 3 
x2   x3  x1 = 0  x3  x2 = 0  x3  x3 = 3 
x3
x3 = x3 =  3 x3
x3 1 0 0 
Fij =  0  2 0 
1-9
 0 0  3 
 1 0 0 
Fij =  xi  x j =  0  0 
 2 
 0 0 3 

Assume:
1) constant volume V′ = V
x1x2 x3 = x1x2 x3 or 123 = 1
x x3
2
2) symmetric about the x1 axis = =  2 = 3
x2 x3
1 1 0 0 
1 = 1 2 =
Fij =  0 11 2 0 
2
2
11 2
 0 0 11 2 
Can we write Hooke’s Law as τ = G  F - I  ? 1-10
Can we write Hooke’s Law as τ = G  F - I  ?

Solid Body Rotation – expect no stresses

x1 = x1 cos θ  x2 sin θ

x2 = x1 sin θ  x2 cos θ For solid body rotation,
expect F = I
x3 = x3
t=0
But
Fij =  xi  x j = F≠I
cos   sin  0 F ≠ FT
Fij =  sin  cos  0
  Need to get rid of rotation
 0 0 1  1-11
create a new tensor!
Finger Tensor
F·FT = V·R·V·R
T

F=V R
= V·R·RT ·VT
V = stretch
= V·I·VT
R = rotation
= V2

 xi  x j
B=F F T
or Bij = Fik Fjk =
 xk  xk
Solid Body Rotation

cos   sin  0  cos  sin  0  1 0 0 


Bij =  sin  cos   
0    sin  cos   
0 = 0 1 0 
 0 0 1   0 0 1  0 0 1 

Bij gives relative local change in area within the sample. 1-12
Neo-Hookean Solid τ = GB - I  or T =  pI  GB

1. Uniaxial Extension

1 0 0 
Fij =  0 11 2 0 
 
 0 0 1 
1 2

1 0 0  1 0 0  12 0 0 

 
Bij = Fik F jk =  0 11 2 0    0 11 2 0  =  0 11 0 
   
 0 0 1   0
1 2
0 1   0
1 2
0 11 

t 11 = G (12  1)
t 22 = G (11  1)
1 f1
t 11  t 22 = G (  ) = T11  T22 = T11 =
2
1
1 a1
t 22  t 33 = 0 since T22 = 0 1-13
 2. Simple Shear

τ = G B - I 
t 21 = G
s
x1 = x1  x2 = x1   x2 t 11  t 22 = G 2
x '2
x2 = x2 agrees with experiment
x3 = x3 1  0 
Fij = 0 1 0 
0 0 1 

1  0   1 0 0  1  
2  0
     
Bij = 0 1 0    1 0  =   1 0
0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 
 
1-14
Silicone rubber G = 160 kPa
 Finger Deformation Tensor Summary
1. B = F FT area change around a point
on any plane
2. symmetric
3. eliminates rotation
4. gives Hooke’s Law in 3D
fits rubber data fairly well
predicts N1, shear normal stresses
f1 1
for uniaxial tension B11 = 1 T11  T22 = T11 = = G(1  )
2

a1 1
 (1   )3  1 
for 1 = 1   T11 = G   for    T11 = 3G
 1   
T11
= tensile modulus = 3G

Course Goal: Understand Principles of Rheology:
(constitutive equations)
stress = f (deformation, time)
Simplest constitutive relations:
Newton’s Law: Hooke’s Law:
d
t =h = h t = G
τ = G B - I
dt

Key Rheological Phenomena

• shear thinning (thickening) h  
• time dependent modulus G(t)
• normal stresses in shear N1
• extensional > shear stress hu > h
 2 VISCOUS LIQUID
The resistance which arises
d x
From the lack of slipperiness
t yx = h
Originating in a fluid, other dy
Things being equal, is
Proportional to the velocity
by which the parts of the
fluids are being separated
from each other.
Isaac S. Newton (1687)
 dv dv x
t =h t yx =h
dy Bernoulli dy measured h in shear
1856 capillary (Poiseuille)
Newton, 1687 Stokes-Navier, 1845 1880’s concentric cylinders
(Perry, Mallock,
Couette, Schwedoff)

Material Approximate
Viscosity
(Pa - s)
Glass 1040
Molten Glass (500C) 1012
Asphalt 108
Molten polymers 103
Heavy syrup 102
Honey 101
Glycerin 100
Olive oil 10-1
Light oil 10-2
Water 10-3
Air 10-5 Adapted from
Barnes et al.
(1989).
Familiar materials have a wide range in viscosity
 dv dv x
t =h t yx =h
dy Bernoulli dy measured h in shear
1856 capillary (Poiseuille)
Newton, 1687 Stokes-Navier, 1845
1880’s concentric cylinders
(Perry, Mallock,
Couette, Schwedoff)

measured in extension
1906 Trouton
hu = 3h

“A variety of pitch which gave by the traction method

l = 4.3 x 1010 (poise) was found by the torsion
method to have a viscosity m = 1.4 x 1010 (poise).”
F.T. Trouton (1906)

To hold his viscous pitch samples, Trouton forced a

thickened end into a small metal box. A hook was
attached to the box from which weights were hung.
polystyrene 160°C
Münstedt (1980)

Goal
1.Put Newton’s Law in 3 dimensions
• rate of strain tensor 2D
• show hu = 3h
recall Deformation Gradient Tensor, F
xˆ 2

Q
s
Motion
s'
xˆ 1
P P

Rest or past state at t' Deformed or present state at t

xˆ 3

Separation and displacement

of point Q from P
Q Q w = x( y, t)  F  s
w′ w
s′ s
P
s = w - y = F  s
y′ y P

s′ = w′ - y′ s=w-y
Viscosity is “proportional to the velocity by which the parts of the
fluids are being separated from each other.” —Newton

Velocity Gradient Tensor L is the velocity gradient tensor.

v
dv =  dx or dv = L  dx
x
s = F  s

rate of separation 
dv = F dx = L  dx
s F s
=  s  F  
t t t F = LF

s   lim F = I  lim F = L
 dv = F s = F dx x  x x  x
t or
t t

 Alternate notation:
dv = F dx = L  dx  vj
v = LT =   xˆ i xˆ j
i j  xi
Can we write Newton’s Law for viscosity as t = hL?

v θ = Ωr F = VR
• • •
vr = vz = 0 F = V R+V R
solid body rotation
lim V  t   = lim R (t ) = I
x x x  x

• • •
lim F = L = V + R
 0 Ω 0 x x

Lij =  Ω 0 0 t2 ≠ t2 • • • •

  L = (V  R ) = V  R
T T

 0 0 0
•
R is anti-symmetric
Rate of Deformation Tensor D
•
2 V = 2D = L  LT = (v)T + v
Other notation:
•
Vorticity Tensor W 2 R = 2W = L  LT •
2D = 
L = D+W = (v ) T
Example 2.2.4 Rate of Deformation Tensor is a Time Derivative of B.

dB
Show lim = 2D
t  t dt Thus

 
 
dB   lim B = F+ FT
= B = F  F = F FT  F  FT
T t  t
dt 
recall that lim F = L
lim F = lim FT = I x  x
t  t t t

lim B = L + LT = 2D
t  t

Show that 2D = 0 for solid body rotation

 0  0  0  0  0  0
2 D = L  LT =   0 0   0 0 = 0 2W = L - LT = 2   0 0
     
 0 0 0  0 0 0  0 0 0
 Newtonian Liquid
t = h2D or T = -pI + h2D
Steady simple shear
Here planes of fluid slide over each other like cards in a deck.

x1 = x1  γx2 x2 = x2 x3 = x3

Time derivatives of the displacement functions

for simple, shear

dx1 dγ dx2
lim = x2 = v 1 = 0 = v2
x 2  x2 dt dt dt
dv1
v 1 =  x2 = x2 and v2 = v3 = 0 (2.2.10)
dx2

0  0   0 0 0  0  0
Lij = 0 0 0  L ji =  0 0  2Dij =  0 0 
0 0 0   0 0 0   0 0 0 

1 0 0   0  0
Tij =  p 0 1 0   h  0 0 
0 0 1   0 0 0  T12 = t 12 = t 21 = h
Newtonian Liquid
Steady Uniaxial Extension
time derivatives of the displacement functions at x1  x1

dx1 dα1 dα
x1 = α1 x1 = x1 or v = 1 x1 = 1 x1
dt dt dt
Similarly v 2 =  2 x2 v3 =  3 x3

1 0 0 
Lij =  0  2 0 
 
 0 0  3 
incompressible fluid (1.7.9)

v = 0
1 0 0  0 0 
or 1   2   3 = 0 Lij =  0  1 2 0  =  0   2 0 

 0 0  1 2   0 0  2 
symmetric, υ 2 = υ3 and thus

1
 2 = 3  2 = 3 =   2 0 0
2
2Dij = (Lij  L ji ) =  0  0 
 0 0  
 Newtonian Liquid
Apply to Uniaxial Extension t = h2D

 2 0 0
t 11 = 2h
2Dij =  0  0 
 0 0   t 22 = t 33 = h

From definition of extensional viscosity

t 11  t 22
hu = = 3h


Newton’s Law in 3 Dimensions Polystyren e melt

•predicts h0 low shear rate
•predicts hu0 = 3h0

but many materials show large deviation

 Summary of Fundamentals
n
1. t n = nˆ  T stress at point on plane T11 T11

simple T - extension and shear

T = pressure + extra stress = -pI + t.
symmetric T = TT i.e. T12=T21

2. B = F FT area change around a point on plane

symmetric, eliminates rotation
gives Hooke’s Law in 3D, E=3G

3. 2D = L  LT
= (v )T
+ v rate of separation of particles
symmetric, eliminates rotation
gives Newton’s Law in 3D, hu = 3h
Course Goal: Understand Principles of Rheology:

stress = f (deformation, time)

NeoHookean: Newtonian:
τ = G B - I t = h2D

Key Rheological Phenomena

• shear thinning (thickening) h  
• time dependent modulus G(t)
• normal stresses in shear N1
• extensional > shear stress hu > h