TRANSISTOR

• A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify

or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It consist of
three terminals emitter, base and collector.
• TWO TYPES OF TRANSISTORS:
 NPN Transistor
 PNP Transistor
CURRENT FLOW IN NPN
TRANSISTOR
 NPN TRANSISTOR
 NPN Transistors are three-terminal, three-layer devices that
can function as either amplifiers or electronic switches
 The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is positive
at the Base and negative at the Emitter because for an NPN
transistor, the Base terminal is always positive with respect to
the Emitter.
 The Collector supply voltage is positive with respect to the
Emitter ( VCE ).
 So for a bipolar NPN transistor to conduct the Collector is
always more positive with respect to both the Base and the
Emitter.
CURRENT FLOW IN NPN
TRANSISTOR
 PNP TRANSISTOR
 The PNP Transistor is the exact opposite to the NPN
Transistor device
 The voltage between the Base and Emitter ( VBE ), is now
negative at the Base and positive at the Emitter because for a
PNP transistor, the Base terminal is always biased negative
with respect to the Emitter.
 Also the Emitter supply voltage is positive with respect to the
Collector ( VCE ).
 So for a PNP transistor to conduct the Emitter is always more
positive with respect to both the Base and the Collector.
 TYPES OF TRANSISTOR
CONFIGURATIONS
• There are three types of transistor
configuration:
Common base configuration(CB)
Common emitter configuration(CE)
Common collector configuration(CC)
 CB CONFIGURATION
 This transistor configuration provides a low input impedance
while offering a high output impedance. Although the voltage
is high, the current gain is low and the overall power gain is
also low when compared to the other transistor configurations
available.
 The other salient feature of this configuration is that the input
and output are in phase.
 In this transistor configuration, the base electrode is common
to both input and output circuits.
CB CONFIGURATION
 CE CONFIGURATION
 This transistor configuration is probably the most widely used.
 The circuit provides a medium input and output impedance
levels. Both current and voltage gain can be described as
medium, but the output is the inverse of the input, i.e. 180°
phase change. This provides a good overall performance and
as such it is often thought of as the most widely used
configuration.
 In this transistor configuration, the emitter electrode is
common to both input and output circuits.
CE CONFIGURATION
 CC CONFIGURATION
 This transistor configuration is also known as the emitter
follower because the emitter voltage follows that of the base.
 Offering a high input impedance and a low output impedance
it is widely used as a buffer. The voltage gain is unity, although
current gain is high.
 The input and output signals are in phase.
 In this transistor configuration, the collector electrode is
common to both input and output circuits.
CC CONFIGURATION
 Operation region summary

Operation IB or VCE BC and BE Mode

Region Char. Junctions
Cutoff IB = Very Reverse & Open
small Reverse Switch
Saturation VCE = Small Forward & Closed
Forward Switch
Active VCE = Reverse & Linear
Linear Moderate Forward Amplifier
Break- VCE = Beyond Overload
down Large Limits
 BJT as Switch
•Vin(Low ) < 0.7 V
•BE junction not forward
biased
•Cutoff region
•No current flows
•Vout = VCE = Vcc
•Vout = High

•Vin(High)
•BE junction forward biased (VBE=0.7V)
•Saturation region
•VCE small (~0.2 V for saturated BJT)
•Vout = small
•IB = (Vin-VB)/RB
•Vout = Low
 BJT as Switch 2
• Basis of digital logic circuits
• Input to transistor gate can be analog or digital
• Building blocks for TTL – Transistor Transistor Logic
• Guidelines for designing a transistor switch:
– VC>VB>VE
– VBE= 0.7 V
– IC independent from IB (in saturation).
– Min. IB estimated from by (IBminIC/b).
– Input resistance such that IB > 5-10 times IBmin because b varies
among components, with temperature and voltage and RB may change
when current flows.
– Calculate the max IC and IB not to overcome device specifications.
BJT as Amplifier

•Common emitter mode

•Linear Active Region
•Significant current Gain
Example:
•Let Gain, b = 100

•Assume to be in active
region -> VBE=0.7V

•Find if it’s in active region

BJT as Amplifier
VBE  0.7V
I E  I B  I C  ( b  1) I B
VBB  VBE 5  0 .7
IB    0.0107 mA
RB  RE *101 402
I C  b * I B  100 * 0.0107  1.07 mA
VCB  VCC  I C * RC  I E * RE  VBE 
 10  (3)(1.07)  (2)(101* 0.0107)  0.7 
 3.93V

VCB>0 so the BJT is in active

region
Number Systems
 Objectives
Understand why computers use binary (Base-2)
numbering.
Understand how to convert Base-2 numbers to Base-
10 or Base-8.
Understand how to convert Base-8 numbers to Base-
10 or Base 2.
Understand how to convert Base-16 numbers to Base-
10, Base 2 or Base-8.

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 Why Binary System?

• Computers are made of a series of

switches
• Each switch has two states: ON or OFF
• Each state can be represented by a number
– 1 for “ON” and 0 for “OFF”

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Converting Base-2 to Base-10
(1 0 0 1 1)
2

OFF

OFF
ON

ON

ON
Exponent:

Calculation:16 0 0 2 1
+ + + + =

(19)10
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• Number systems include decimal, binary,
octal and hexadecimal
• Each system have four number base

Number System Base Symbol

Binary Base 2 B
Octal Base 8 O
Decimal Base 10 D
Hexadecimal Base 16 H

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 1.1 Decimal Number System
• The Decimal Number System uses base 10. It
includes the digits {0, 1,2,…, 9}. The weighted
values for each position are:
Base

10^4 10^3 10^2 10^1 10^0 10^-1 10^-2 10^-3

10000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001

left of the decimal point Right of decimal point

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• Each digit appearing to the left of the decimal
point represents a value between zero and nine
times power of ten represented by its position in
the number.
• Digits appearing to the right of the decimal point
represent a value between zero and nine times an
increasing negative power of ten.
• Example: the value 725.194 is represented in
expansion form as follows:
• 7 * 10^2 + 2 * 10^1 + 5 * 10^0 + 1 * 10^-1 + 9 *
10^-2 + 4 * 10^-3
• =7 * 100 + 2 * 10 + 5 * 1 + 1 * 0.1 + 9 * 0.01 + 4 *
0.001
• =700 + 20 + 5 + 0.1 + 0.09 + 0.004
• =725.194
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 1.2 The Binary Number Base Systems
• Most modern computer system using binary logic. The
computer represents values(0,1) using two voltage levels
(usually 0V for logic 0 and either +3.3 V or +5V for logic
1).
• The Binary Number System uses base 2 includes only the
digits 0 and 1
• The weighted values for each position are :
Base

2^5 2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0 2^-1 2^-2

32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25
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 1.3 Number Base Conversion
• Binary to Decimal: multiply each digit by its
weighted position, and add each of the weighted
values together or use expansion form directly.
• Example the binary value 1100 1010 represents :
• 1*2^7 + 1*2^6 + 0*2^5 + 0*2^4 + 1*2^3 + 0*2^2 +
1*2^1 + 0*2^0 =
• 1 * 128 + 1 * 64 + 0 * 32 + 0 * 16 + 1 * 8 + 0 * 4 + 1 *
2+0*1=
• 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 =202

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• Decimal to Binary
There are two methods, that may be used to convert
from integer number in decimal form to binaryform:
1-Repeated Division By 2
• For this method, divide the decimal number by 2,
• If the remainder is 0, on the right side write down a 0.
• If the remainder is 1, write down a 1.
• When performing the division, the remainders which
will represent the binary equivalent of the decimal
number are written beginning at the least significant
digit (right) and each new digit is written to more
significant digit (the left) of the previous digit.
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• Example: convert the number 333 to binary.
Division Quotient Remainder Binary
333/2 166 1 1
166/2 83 0 01
83/2 41 1 101
41/2 20 1 1101
20/2 10 0 01101
10/2 5 0 001101
5/2 2 1 1001101
2/2 1 0 01001101
1/2 0 1 101001101
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 Octal System
 Computer scientists are often looking for
shortcuts to do things
 One of the ways in which we can represent
binary numbers is to use their octal
equivalents instead
 This is especially helpful when we have to do
fairly complicated tasks using numbers

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• The octal numbering system includes
eight base digits (0-7)
• After 7, the next placeholder to the right
begins with a “1”
• 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 ...

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 Octal Placeholders
Number: 2 4 1
“Sixty-
Fours”

“Eights”

“Ones
”
Placeholder
Name:

Value: 64*2 8*4 1*1

Exponential
Expression: 82*2 81*4 80*1

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 Transform (44978)10 to Octal
Division Quotient Remainder Binary
• .
44978 / 8 5622 2 2
5622 / 8 702 6 62
702/8 87 6 662
87/8 10 7 7662
10/8 1 2 27662
1/8 0 1 127662

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 Computers and Electricity
Gate
A device that performs a basic operation on
electrical signals
Circuits
Gates combined to perform more
complicated tasks

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 Computers and Electricity
How do we describe the behavior of gates and circuits?
Boolean expressions
Uses Boolean algebra, a mathematical notation for expressing
two-valued logic
Logic diagrams
A graphical representation of a circuit; each gate has its
own symbol
Truth tables
A table showing all possible input values and the associated
output values

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 Gates
Six types of gates
– NOT
– AND
– OR
– XOR
– NAND
– NOR
Typically, logic diagrams are black and white with gates
distinguished only by their shape
We use color for clarity (and fun)

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 NOT Gate

A NOT gate accepts one input signal (0 or 1) and returns

the complementary (opposite) signal as output

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 AND Gate

An AND gate accepts two input signals

If both are 1, the output is 1; otherwise,
the output is 0

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 OR Gate
An OR gate accepts two input signals
If both are 0, the output is 0; otherwise,
the output is 1

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 XOR Gate
An XOR gate accepts two input signals
If both are the same, the output is 0; otherwise,
the output is 1

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 XOR Gate
Note the difference between the XOR gate
and the OR gate; they differ only in one
input situation
When both input signals are 1, the OR gate produces
a 1 and the XOR produces a 0

XOR is called the exclusive OR because its output is 1

if (and only if):
• either one input or the other is 1,
• excluding the case that they both are
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 NAND Gate
The NAND (“NOT of AND”) gate accepts two input signals
If both are 1, the output is 0; otherwise,
the output is 1
 NOR Gate
The NOR (“NOT of OR”) gate accepts two inputs
If both are 0, the output is 1; otherwise,
the output is 0

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 Gates with More Inputs
Some gates can be generalized to accept three or more input
values
A three-input AND gate, for example, produces an output of 1
only if all input values are 1

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 Review of Gate Processing
Gate Behavior
NOT Inverts its single input
AND Produces 1 if all input values are 1
OR Produces 0 if all input values are 0
XOR Produces 0 if both input values are the same
NAND Produces 0 if all input values are 1
NOR Produces 1 if all input values are 0

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 Combinational Circuits
Circuit equivalence
Two circuits that produce the same output for identical
input
Boolean algebra
Allows us to apply provable mathematical principles to
help design circuits
A(B + C) = AB + BC (distributive law) so circuits must be
equivalent

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 Properties of Boolean Algebra

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 De-Morgans Theorems & Proofs
P1: a+b = b+a, ab=ba (commutative)
P2: a+bc = (a+b)(a+c) (distributive)
a(b+c) = ab + ac
P3: a+0=a, a1 = a (identity)
P4: a+a’=1, a a’= 0 (complement)

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Theorem 6 (Involution Laws):
For every element a in B, (a')' = a
Proof: a is one complement of a'.
The complement of a' is unique
Thus a = (a')'
Theorem 7 (Absorption Law): For every pair
a,b in B, a·(a+b) = a; a + a·b = a.
Proof: a(a+b)
= (a+0)(a+b) (P3)
= a+0·b (P2)
=a+0 (P3)
=a (P3)
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 Theorems and Proofs
Theorem 8: For every pair a, b in B
a + a’*b = a + b; a*(a’ + b) = a*b
Proof: a + a’*b
= (a + a’)*(a + b) (P2)
= (1)*(a + b) (P4)
= (a + b) (P3)

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 Theorem 9: De Morgan’s Law
Theorem: For every pair a, b in set B:
(a+b)’ = a’b’, and (ab)’ = a’+b’.
Proof: We show that a+b and a’b’ are
complementary.
In other words, we show that both of the
following are true (P4):
(a+b) + (a’b’) = 1, (a+b)(a’b’) = 0.

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Theorem 9: De Morgan’s Law (cont.)

Proof (Continue):
(a+b)(a’b’)
(a+b)+(a’b’)
=(a’b’)(a+b) (P1)
=(a+b+a’)(a+b+b’) (P2)
=a’b’a+a’b’b (P2)
=(1+b)(a+1) (P4)
=0*b’+a’*0 (P4)
=1 (Theorem 3)
=0+0 (Theorem 3)
=0 (P3)

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