Brain

Mind and Self

 Nervous System
• Odd to Severe
disturbances in function
and sense of self linked to
Brain damage. E.g.,
• Gourmand Syndrome
(along with left side
weakness and left visual
field damage)
• Loss of STM LTM along
with retained habitual
behaviors
• Other kinds of advances
in decoding the
relationship between
patterns of brain activity
and behavioral function
• - Recovery from minimally
conscious state
• - Macaque Monkeys
trained to control robotic
arm
• Recognize visual input
from patterns of
perceptual system activity
 Nervous Systems
• CNS • Sneezing / blinking are
handled by lower brain
• Receives sensory and
other input (internal • Neural circuits involved
organs). Outputs to I reflexes are linked to
muscles, lands and other neural pathways
internal organs. and so may be
• Brain + Spinal Cord influenced higher level
• Spinal Reflexes thought and emotions
 Nervous Systems
• Peripheral NS • Sympathetic: Dilates
pupils, weak salivation,
• Sensory Neurons sweat glands, accelerated
Heartbeat, dilates
• Motor Neurons: Muscles, bronchial tubes, inhibit
organs and glands digestion, increases
• Somatic or Skeletal NS-> adrenaline, glucose,
Voluntary action ejaculation in males
• Autonomic NS:
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic
 Individual Neuron
• Neurons / Nerve cells / in
cluster called Nerves
• Held in place by Glial cells
• Glial cells do housekeeping
functions and may also be
behind synapse formation
• Neuron structure
• Dendrites -> Cell Body -> Axon
• Size may vary from 4/1000
inch to 2-3 feet
• Myelin Sheath: Made of Glial
cells
• Nodes
• Insulate and prevent cross
contamination of signals
• Speed up transmission.
• Loss of Myelin: Multiple
Sclerosis
• 43 pairs of nerves. 12 pairs in
the head -> Cranial nerves
 Neuron Communication
• Synapse or Synaptic cleft • Na + inside K+ outside

• Resting potential Na+ outside Cl – • Action potential hops from node to

inside node via fast flow of ions inside the
axon
• Lipo-protein walls + pumps
• Synaptic vesicles release
• Stimulation of a neuron leads to -> Neurotransmitter
Action potential
• Key and lock system

• Lock into receptor sites where they

may produce an excitatory or
inhibitory effect
• Activation threshold
• All-or Nothing response
• One way transmission of messages
 Neurotransmitters
• At birth, most synapses have not yet formed.
• Dendrites and Axons continue to grow and
‘spines’ i.e., tiny projections on dendrites
increase connectivity of neurons
• In early childhood there is also significant
‘pruning’ of unused dendrites and neurons
• It is these mechanisms that are thought to be
behind the various ‘critical periods’ of
development
• However, even the adult brain retains
remarkable plasticity
• Gougoux et al 2005: Occipital cortex active in
persons blind from birth / early childhood in
task of sound location. In sighted persons,
there is inhibition in this area. Degree of
activity in blind persons linked with degree of
accuracy in task.
• If sighted people were kept blindfolded for 5
days, same brain areas started getting
activated during hearing and touch tasks
• Neurotransmitters, critical to neuronal
messaging are found in all Neural systems
• Multiple Neurotransmitters effect multiple
systems
• Serotonin: Sleep, appetite, sensory
perception, temperature regulation, pain
suppression, mood
• Dopamine: Voluntary movement, learning,
memory, emotion, pleasure & reward,
possibly novelty seeking
• Acetylcholine: Neuron-muscle junction,
cognitive function, memory and emotion
• Norepinephrine: Heart rate, slowing
intestinal function, learning, memory,
dreaming, arousal from sleep, emotion
• GABA: General inhibitory NT
• Glutamate: General excitatory NT (90%
neurons release it)
 Neurotransmitters
• Roles in disorders:
• GABA levels in eating and
sleep disorders, also
epilepsy
• Alzheimer’s:
Acetylcholine leading to
memory loss
• Dopamine: Parkinson’s
disease
• MS: Excessive glutamate
killing Glial cells
• Causal roles are complex
• Agonists: Morphine,
Heroin
• Antagonists: Curare-
>Acetylcholine
• Reuptake inhibitors:
Cocaine, caffeine, Viagra,
SSRIs
• Diets: L-Dopa, Tryptophan
building block of
serotonin. High carbs
cause insulin which in
turn leaches other amino
acids
 Neurotransmitters
• Endorphins: Endogenous • Melatonin (Pineal)
opioid peptides function • Oxytocin and Vasopressin
as NT and by mediating (Pituitary)
effects of NT • Adrenal Glands: Cortisol
• Also involved in bonding and Adrenaline
and attachment • Androgens: Testosterone,
• Hormones: Circulated via Estrogen, Progesterone
the bloodstream from
Endocrine glands
• Some NT and hormones
overlap
 Mapping the Brain
• Lesioning method • Color coding can
• EEG minimize or accentuate
• Microelectrodes brain activity levels
• TMS • MRI / fMRIs involve
statistical calculations
that can give rise to
• Scanning: excessive correlation
• PET Glucose estimates
• MRI • Subtractive methods and
the problem of functional
guesses
• Individual differences in
genes and experiences
 Mapping the Brain
• Gall: Localization of Function
• Brain stem: Pons-> arousal,
dreaming
• Medulla -> Involuntary Basic
functions
• Reticular activating System:
Activation of higher centers
• Cerebellum: Balance and fine
muscle control. Simple skills
and acquired reflexes,
language
• Thalamus: Sensory way station
in the center of the brain.
Multisensory cells. Olfactory
sense bypasses
• Hypothalamus and Pituitary:
Basic motivations and
temperature, bioclock
• Olds and Milner (1954)
Pleasure centers. However,
complex interpretation,
including the fact that
pathways rather than centers
are activated
• Limbic System: Border of mid-
fore brain
 Mapping the Brain
• Limbic System: Hypothalamus,
Amygdala, Hippocamus
• Amygdala: Evaluation of sensory
information also anxiety and
depression. Emotional memories
• Hippocampus: Sensory info
compared with expectations and
feedback to reticular system
• Spatial memories, gateway to factual
memories
• Cerebrum: Cerebral hemispheres and
the corpus callosum
• Contralateral function and
hemispheric specialization
• On the surface: grey matter
• Underneath myelinated axons or
white matter
• Lobes:
• Occipital: visual system
• Parietal: Somatosensory area
• Temporal: Memory, perception,
language including Wernike’s area
(left temporal)
• Frontal lobes: Broca’s area. Also
executive functions
• Perseveration, goal monitoring, social
judgments
•
 Split Brain
• Sperry 1964 Animals having • Also in logical, symbolic and
learnt a task could not sequential tasks
perform it with the other
hemisphere
• Humans: Split faces. Names
one but with the left hand
pointed to another
• Nude image would lead to
smile but only an
explanation if on the right
side
• Language mainly on the left