Aircraft Design

Process

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 Recommended
Further Reading
• D.Raymer – Aircraft Design, A Conceptual Approach

• John P. Fielding - Introduction to Aircraft Design

• L.Jenkinson, P.Simpkin & D.Rhodes – Civil Jet Aircraft

Design

• D.Stinton – The Design of the Aeroplane

• S.Brandt, J.Stiles & R.Whitford – Introduction to

Aeronautics – A Design Perspective
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 Design Process - Overview
1. Basic & general requirements.

2. Feasibility study.

3. Specification.

4. Design phases (Concept, Preliminary, Detail)

5. Testing, certification & project life cycle.

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 1.Basic Requirements
• New design launched when perceived requirement
arises for aircraft beyond capability of those
existing.
• Usually due to:
– aircraft approaching end of its useful life.
– design overtaken by technological developments.
• Identification of need may originate from:
– manufacturing organization (especially if civil).
– potential operator (especially if military).

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 1. Basic Requirements (Cont.)
• Initial basic requirements statement often brief,
including class of aircraft and major performance
characteristics.
• Initial statement usually refined after consultations
with appropriate operators and major
manufacturers.

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 1. General Requirements
• Result of many years of previous experience
applicable to various classes of a/c.
• Act as:
– guide to designers.
– basis for eventual clearance of a/c for
intended operators.
• Most important for civil/general
aviation are:
– FAR 25/23 (US), JAR 25/23 (Europe)
– (Federal or Joint Airworthiness
Requirements)
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 1. General Requirements (Cont.)
• FAR and JAR written in
identical format with only a few
subtle differences – eventual aim
is for commonality.

• For military a/c use:

– DEF STAN 00-970 (UK), MIL
SPECS (US)
– MIL SPECS being replaced with
requirements defined by individual
manufacturers (Lockheed Martin,
Boeing).

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 2. Feasibility Study
• Follows basic requirement to assess whether
need can be met with existing technology or
not.

• Needed due to complexity of aeronautical

projects.

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 2. Feasibility Study (Cont.)
• Also used for other purposes:
– how best to meet basic requirement (adaptation of existing
a/c, major modification of existing a/c, completely new
design (highest risk & cost).

– concept/configuration comparison studies also undertaken.

– review and revision of basic requirement performance
characteristics.
– likely output is definition of detailed set of requirements
(specification).
– initial cost estimation.

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 3. Specification

Performance
• Range with basic payload mass.
• Alternative range/payload combinations (+ reserves).
• Max (or max normal) operating speed.
• Take-off & landing field length limitations.
• Climb performance (time to height, ceiling, etc.).
• Manoeuvre & acceleration requirements.

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 3. Specification
Operations

• Size & mass limitations (runway loading).

• Crew complement.
• Occupant environment (pressure, temperature).
• Navigation/communications equipment.
• Payload variation & associated equipment.
• Maintenance targets.
• Stealth aspects (military a/c).
• Extended engine failed allowance (ETOPS) – civil.

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 3. Specification
General

• Growth potential.
• Cost targets, availability.
• Airframe life.
• Airworthiness requirements (JAR 25, etc.).

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 3. Specification Example
C-5 Specific Operational Requirement –1963 (Selected Items)

• Basic design mission: 100,000 to 130,000 lb for 4000 nm

• Alternate mission: 50,000 lb for 5500 nm
• Load factor: 2.5
• Maximum design payload: 130,000 – 150,000 lb
• Cruise speed: > 440 kts (TAS)
• Cruise ceiling: > 30,000 ft
• Take-off at max TOW: < 8000 ft
• Take-off at 4000 nm weight: < 4000 ft
• Landing with 100,000 lb & fuel reserves for 4000 nm: <
4000 ft

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 3. Specification Example
C-5 Specific Operational Requirement –1963
(Selected Items) – (Cont.)

• Cargo compartment: length 100 –

110 ft, width 16 – 17.5 ft, height
13.5 ft.
• Cargo landing: straight through, one
full section, one 9x10ft, truck bed
floor height desirable.
• Powerplant: 6 x turbofans.
• Reliability: 95% probability of
completing 10 hr mission.
• Availability: June 1970.
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 4. Concept Design
• All major questions asked and answered.

– will it work?
– what does it look like?
– what requirements drive the
design?
– what trade-offs should be
considered?
– what should it weigh and cost?

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 4. Concept Design
• No correct solution and process involves great
deal of compromise, iteration and trade-offs.

• Illustrated when different teams are requested to

submit designs based upon an initial basic
requirement or specification – all will be
different and the customer can then choose
accordingly.

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Lockheed P38 Concept Designs

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 JSF Concept Designs

(a)
(b)
(a) Lockheed-Martin X-35 – successful
(b) Boeing – rejected after demonstrator
flights
(c) McDonnell-Douglas – rejected after
concept design phase (c)
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 4. Concept Design

• Various activities to be covered include:

– configuration possibilities
– preliminary sizing (weight)
– drag polar equation estimation
– performance sizing & matching using W/S and T/W
relationships – to optimally fix wing size and engine
thrust power
– wing layout and high-lift devices

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 4. Concept Design
• Followed by:

– confirmation of configuration
– fuselage sizing
– propulsion selection & integration
– empennage sizing
– weight and balance analysis
– stability analysis

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 Preliminary Design
Begins when major design changes are over.

– configuration and major characteristics “frozen”.

– testing and development tools developed.
– major items designed.
– cost estimates refined.

• Followed by detail design, production, testing and

certification phases.
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Aircraft Development Process

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Aircraft Development Process

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 Other Activities
• Many other activities often undertaken in typical
undergraduate group project, depending on a/c type
but typically:
– Structural layout – wing, fuselage, empennage.
– Stress & structural analysis and materials selection.
– Intake/exhaust design.
– flight deck & avionics suite, weapons selection/integration.
– passenger/payload compartment.
– reliability & maintainability.
– survivability & stealth, defensive aids suite.
– hydraulics, pneumatics, electrics, ice protection, fire
detection/suppression, etc.

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 Detail Design Phase

• Most extensive phase of whole process.

• Purpose is to verify earlier assumptions and
produce data needed for hardware manufacture.
• Requires generation of many drawings (by
computer aided design nowadays).
• Best solution required for performance,
manufacturing costs and operations.

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 Testing
• Ground and flight test hardware manufactured
from detail design phase.
Ground Testing
• Includes wind tunnel tests, structural specimens
and systems rigs.
Flight Tests
• To verify performance and flight
characteristics of actual aircraft.
• Expensive – so must be completed quickly.
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 Certification
• Operational flight clearance issued when calculations,
ground and flight testing of design demonstrate to
satisfaction of appropriate airworthiness authority that
all relevant requirements are met.
• Customer also requires demonstration of performance
capabilities.

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 Project Life Cycle
• Design phase leading to certification may take up to a
decade.
• Development costs rise with time taken to achieve
certification.
• Manufacturer continues to support aircraft throughout
operational life – can last 50 years+ for a successful
design.

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