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Strengthevaluationofexistingstructures
Strengthevaluationofexistingstructures
Presented By:
IRFAN KHAN
• Introduction
1
• Investigation
2
l.l--Scope
1.2--Applications
1.3--Exceptions
1.4--Categories of evaluation
1.5-Procedure for a structural evaluation
1.6--Commentary
1.7--Organization of the report
• Scope
1
• Durability of thestructure
Moreover, a stable structure shall remain stable for any imaginable system
of loads. That is why, load types and point of applications are not taken into
considerations while a decision is made about whether a structure is stable
or not.
Most structural evaluations have a number of basic steps in common. However, each
evaluation should be treated as unique and emphasis placed on the different steps
as dictated by the project. Generally, the evaluation will consist of:
Defining the existing condition of the building,
including:
• Reviewing available information of the building
• Conducting a condition survey of the building
• Determining the cause and rate of progression of
existing distress
• Determining the degree of repair to precede the
evaluation
• Procedure for a structural evaluation
1.5
Review of existing
information
Condition survey
of the building
2.1
• Review of existing information
All sources of existing information concerning the design, map and construction.
should be researched to learnas much aspossible about the structure.
2.1
• Review of existing information
All forms and areas of deterioration and distress existing in the structural
elements of the building should be located, inspected and recorded as to
type, location, and degree of severity.
1. Abnormalities
Explanation:
Procedures for conducting this test are given in ASTM C 805.The test
instrument consists of a metal housing, a spring-loaded mass (the hammer)
and a steel rod (the plunger). To perform a test, the plunger is placed
perpendicular to the concrete surface and the housing is pushed toward the
concrete. This action causes the extension of a spring connected to the
hammer. When the instrument is pushed to its limit, the hammer is
propelled toward the concrete and it impacts a shoulder on the plunger. The
hammer rebounds, and the rebound distance is measured on a scale
numbered from 10 to 100.
The rebound distance is recorded as the “rebound number” indicated on
the scale.
• The greater the amount of absorbed energy by concrete, the lower the
rebound number.
• A test performed directly above a hard particle of coarse aggregate
results in a higher rebound number than a test over mortar.
• To account for the variations in local conditions, ASTM C 805 requires the
averaging of ten rebound readings for a test.
Pulse velocity Test
Pulse velocity Test
Explanation
The procedures for this method are given in ASTM C 597.In this test, the strength
and quality of concrete is assessed by measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic
pulse passing through a concrete structure.The test equipment includes a
transmitter, a receiver, and electronic instrumentation. The test consists of
measuring the time it takes for a pulse of vibrational energy to travel through a
concrete member. The vibrational energy is introduced into the concrete by the
transmitter, detected by the receivier. The distance between them is divided by
the transit time to obtain the pulse velocity through the concrete under test.
Greater the velocity more will be the Strength.
An increase in moisture content increases the pulse velocity and this
could be incorrectly interpreted as an increase in compressive strength.
The presence of reinforcing steel aligned with the pulse travel path can also
significantly increase pulse velocity.
Cracking and Honeycombing can also be detected by this method.
Nondestructive tests for identifying Sounding Test
internal abnormalities -- A strength
evaluation may also include determining if
internal abnormalities exist. For example,
it may be necessary to determine if there
are internal voids, cracks, or regions of
inferior concrete quality.
Sounding Test
Hollow areas below the concrete surface can be detected by striking the
surface with a hammer or a steel bar. A “hollow” or “drum-like” sound
results when the surface over a defective area is struck, compared with a
“ringing” noise over sound concrete. For slabs, a heavy steel chain can be
dragged over the concrete surface.
Sounding is a simple and effective method for locating regions with subsurface
fracture planes. However, the sensitivity and reliability of the method decreases
as the depth of the defect increases. Procedures for using sounding in
pavements and slabs may be found in ASTM D 4580.
3 • Methods for material evaluation
This chapter describes procedures that should be undertaken to assess the
quality and mechanical properties of the concrete and reinforcing steel in a
structure. Sampling techniques, petrographic and chemical analysis of
concrete, and test methods available to assess the mechanical properties of
concrete and steel are discussed.
Concrete
Reinforcing Steel
3.1 • Concrete
Techniques for proper sampling of concrete
Samples are retrieved to determined strength as well as physical
and chemical properties. It is essential that samples be obtained,
handled, stored and identified in a proper way of prevent
damage or contamination .
Guidance on developing an appropriate sampling program is provided
by ASTM C 823. Samples are usually taken to obtain statistical
information about the properties of concrete in the entire structure, or
to characterize some unusual or extreme conditions in specific portions
of the structure. In the first case, sample locations should be randomly
distributed throughout the structure. The number and size of samples
depends on the necessary laboratory tests and the degree of
confidence desired in the average values obtained from the tests.
3.1 • Concrete
1. Core sampling -- The procedures for properly removing concrete samples by core drilling
are given in ASTM C 42. The following guidelines are of particular importance in core
sampling:
Equipment: Cores should be taken using diamond-studded core bits when the cores will be
tested for strength. A shot drill may be acceptable for other applications when the core is
drilled vertically. However, diamond-studded core bits are recommended for other drill
orientations.
The number, size, and location of core samples should be carefully selected to permit all
necessary laboratory tests. If possible, use virgin samples for all tests so that there will be no
influence from prior tests
Core diameter: Cores to be tested for a strength property should have a minimum diameter of
three times the maximum nominal size of the coarse aggregate, or 2 in. (50 mm), whichever is
greater
Core length: Where possible, cores to be tested for a strength property should have a length of
at least twice their diameter Reinforcing steel should not be included in a core to be tested for
strength Caution should be exercised to avoid cutting electrical conduits or prestressing steel.
Where cores are taken to determine strength, at least three cores should be removed at each
location in the structure. The strength value should be taken as the average of the cores.
3.1
• Concrete
2. Random sampling of broken concrete
Sampling of broken concrete generally should not be used where strength of
concrete is in question. This method is most frequently used when evaluating
chemical properties of deteriorated concrete members.
Petrographic and chemical analysis
A qualified petrographic and chemical laboratory can be helpful in determining
characteristics and properties of concrete from an existing structure which may
be important in a strength evaluation. A qualified petrographer who is familiar
with problems commonly encountered with concrete should be consulted prior
to the removal of samples from an existing structure. The petrographer should
be provided with information regarding the preconstruction, construction, and
postconstruction history and performance of the structure.
1. Aggregates -- The following properties of aggregates can be determined by
petrographic evaluation of concrete samples (ASTM C 856):
Particle shape, size distribution, and -- composition
The extent to which the particles are coated, and the nature of the coating
substance
The potential for deleterious reactions between the aggregate and cement
alkalies, sulfates, and sulfides
Presence of unsound aggregates (fractured, porous, and degree of weathering)
3.1
• Concrete
2. Concrete -- The following characteristics of the concrete can be
determined by petrographic analysis in accordance with ASTM C 856:
(Petrographic analysis is an important tool to study the mineralogical and
chemical composition of stones)
• Density of the cement paste, and color of the cement
• Homogeneity of the concrete
• Occurrence of settlement and bleeding in fresh concrete
• Presence of deterioration caused by exposure to freezing and thawing
• Occurrence and distribution of fractures
• Characteristics and distribution of voids
• Presence of contaminating substances
• Proportion of un hydrated cement
• Presence of mineral admixtures
• Volumetric proportions of aggregates, cement paste, and air voids
• Air content and various dimensional characteristics of the air void system
(including entrained and entrapped air)
• Weathering patterns from surface-to bottom
• Presence of deterioration due to abrasion or fire exposure
3.1
• Concrete
3. Chemical tests -- Chemical tests can determine the cement content, content of
soluble salts, depth of carbonation, and chloride content. Where the structure is
exposed to deleterious substances it is often useful to develop a profile of the
property through the thickness of the member. This is particularly important for
structures where chlorides are present.
Testing concrete for compressive strength
1. Destructive testing – Compressive strength of concrete cores taken from an
existing structure should be determined in accordance with ASTM C 39 and
ASTM C 42. A number of key points should be observed in this procedure.
2. Nondestructive testing -- The investigator performing a strength evaluation is
cautioned that currently there are no nondestructive tests which yield direct
compressive strengths of concrete in an existing structure. Nondestructive tests
are commonly used in conjunction with tests of drilled cores to reduce the
amount of coring required to establish compressive strengths throughout the
structure. Considerable care is required to established valid estimates of
compressive strength based on nondestructive testing.
• Reinforcing steel
3.2
• The accuracy of these devices depends on bar spacing and thickness of concrete
cover. Inaccurate results may occur when the depth of concrete cover is equal to or
close to the spacing of the reinforcing bars. Care should be taken to insure that the
search unit is not used close to other ferrous materials, as inaccurate results may be
obtained.
• Results from tests should be calibrated or correlated by drilling or chipping to
confirm concrete cover and bar size.
• Reinforcing steel
3.2
2. Radiographic evaluation
• Radiography may be used to determine the size, position, and configuration of
embedded reinforcing steel.
• Inspection by x ray is especially useful in locating post-tensioning strands in
concrete slabs.
• Gamma ray inspection may be used in concrete up to 18 in. (450 mm) thick and
is generally acceptable as a field test method because of its portability.
Radiographic evaluation
• Reinforcing steel
3.2
Soil Thermal
Dead load Live Load
Pressure effects
Loads Environmental
Conditions
Seism ic
Wind load Fire shrinkage
load
Dead load
1. Evaluation by analysis
Applications : Evaluation solely by analysis is recommended where:
• Sufficient information is available, or readily obtainable by field investigation,
about the physical characteristics, material properties, and structural behavior
and loadings to which the structure will be subjected.
Load testing is impractical or unsafe because of the magnitude, complexity of
the loads and testing arrangements required, or both
Load testing members which are suspected of being susceptible to sudden
failure, would endanger the safety of the structure and those persons
conducting such tests. This would include columns or arches likely to fail in
compression and cases susceptible to shear or anchorage failure
4.2.1 • Evaluation solely by analysis
4. Sudden failure
If the structure or element under consideration is known to contain defects that
may cause brittle behavior, load testing is specifically not recommended. This
condition may most frequently be encountered when evaluating structural
elements for shear capacity. Refer to Section 5.2.8 for additional guidance.
• Evaluation by analysis and structural modeling
4.2.3
For structural elements where the magnitude of existing load effects due to
restrained volume changes (shrinkage, creep, temperature, differential settlement,
etc.) is significant, alone, or in combination with vertical loads
Analytical evaluation
The information gathered from the preliminary investigation and material evaluations
should be used to determine analytically the safe load-carrying capacity of the
structure or portion of the structure being evaluated. This chapter provides guidelines
for performance of the evaluation, and criteria for interpreting the results of the
evaluation.
1.Forms of analysis
In the evaluation of concrete structures by analytical methods, “analysis” has two
different meanings. One deals with finding the values of forces and moments which
exist in the structure. The second uses the characteristics of the structure or member
to predict how it will respond to the existing load effects.
A structure must be “analyzed” to determine the bending moments, shear forces, axial
forces, etc., at the sections which are believed to be critical. This analysis invariably
involves computations and calculations, perhaps using a computer. Most engineers
will conduct this part of the analysis using methods which assume that individual
members have linear and elastic material properties, even though this is not strictly
true for reinforced concrete.
• THE EVALUATION
5
b) Approximate analysis
Use of approximate methods of analysis requires considerable experience with the
type of structural system under evaluation and its behavior. Most importantly,
approximate methods require the exercise of sound engineering judgment.
Approximations must be applicable to the specific circumstances. Two basic
guidelines should be followed:
3. General considerations
The assumed behavior of the structure and the results of the theoretical analyses
must be compatible with the observed behavior of the structure. The analyses
should consider fully, and model appropriately, characteristics of the structure
such as:
• The effects of non prismatic members on the relative stiffness of components
in the structure
• Torsional characteristics of structural members
• Two-way load response in slab systems Column support and structural fixities
in terms of moment-rotation characteristics
• Column base characteristics as influenced by soil conditions
Modifications may be made to the results of the theoretical structural analyses
to account for the anticipated future condition of the structure. These
modifications should include full consideration for any anticipated repairs and
continuing maintenance of the structure, as well as any future anticipated
deterioration of the structure.
• Evaluation by analysis and in-place load testing
5.2
4. Acceptance criteria
The structure or structural component being evaluated may be deemed to have
sufficient strength if the analytical evaluation clearly demonstrates that the predicted
design capacity of the elements under consideration satisfies the requirements and
the intent of ACI 318.
Where field work has established the actual material strengths of steel and concrete;
indicated the size, location, and configuration of reinforcement; and identified
member and structural dimensions, uncertainty about the structure is clearly
reduced. Some investigators believe that this supporting work can serve as
justification
for using a different capacity reduction factor 4 for evaluation, as opposed to design.
There is a great potential for developing this concept, but at present there is no
consensus or appropriate methodology. Experience and engineering judgment of the
investigator are extremely important in this case.
In case the analytical evaluation shows the structure does not satisfy the intent of ACI
318, the building official may approve a lower load rating for the structure based on
the results of the evaluation.
• Evaluation by analysis and in-place load testing
5.2
• If test loads are applied by using separate pieces, the pieces should be of uniform
shape and weight. The weight of each piece should not differ by more than 5
percent from the average weight. The average weight should be determined by
weighing at least 20 pieces taken at random. If nonuniform load elements are used,
each separate piece should be measured (i.e., determine surface contact area),
weighed, and marked appropriately
• The weight of the loading elements should be easily measurable
• The load devices should be easy to apply and readily removable
• Hygroscopic materials should not be used as test load devices
• Test load devices applied to sloping surfaces must be securely anchored to
prevent shifting. Load components, which may be applied to the structure, must
be accounted for in all directions
• It is usually preferable to apply test loads with hydraulic or pneumatic devices
because of the ease of application and speed of removal (unloading)
• When using hydraulic or pneumatic load application systems, it is necessary to
provide properly and safely for the reactions of those devices, except where these
reactions are part of the loading scheme. It is also necessary to insure that these
loading devices will continue to function in a uniform fashion, even with
significant deformation of the structure during application of the test load.
• Supplementing the analytical evaluation with load tests
5.2
• If water, loosely sprinkled sand, or other similar materials are used for the test
load, they should be contained within Small compartments to prevent “ponding”
effects or shifting of the test load during significant deformation of the structure
that may occur while the test load is acting
• The total accumulated test load should be within 5 percent of the intended value
Arrangement of the test load should consider the following:
1) The test load should be arranged as close as possible to the arrangement of the
load for which the structure was designed
2) If the test load cannot be arranged as described above, it should be designed
and arranged in such a fashion as to produce load effects in the structure similar to
those that would be produced by the design load
3) If uniform design loads are approximated with converging (concentrated) load
systems, such systems must be designed so that significant stress concentrations
do not occur at the points of load application
4) Consideration should be given in designing the application of the test load to
produce maximum load effect in the area of the structure being tested. This
includes use of checkerboard or similar type pattern loads
• Supplementing the analytical evaluation with load tests
5.2
5. Instrumentation
The following guidelines are applicable to installation of instrumentation systems
for monitoring the performance of a structure or structural element during a load
test. Russell (1980) provides additional background on field instrumentation.
• Instrumentation should be provided for monitoring deflections, lateral
deformations, support rotations, support settlement or shifting, etc., during
application of the test load
• Strain measurements should be made on flexural members at critical locations
• Deflection and strain measurement devices should be duplicated in critical
areas
• The acceptable error in instruments used for measuring displacements should
not exceed 5 percent of the calculated theoretical deformation, or 0.005 in.
(0.13 mm)
• Measurement devices should be provided and mounted so that it is possible to
determine relative changes in the shape of the structure or structural element
during the test
• Instrumentation should be protected during the load test from environmental
influences such as direct sunlight, significant temperature variations, and wind
• Supplementing the analytical evaluation with load tests
5.2
• All instrumentation should be installed in advance of the start of the load test
to allow for determination of the effects of daily thermal changes on the
deformations of the structure and on the instruments themselves. If necessary,
compensation factors can be developed for application to the data obtained
from the load test
• Deflection of structural members can be measured with electronic or
mechanical devices, or with conventional surveying equipment
• Displacement transducers and resistance strain gage are available and may
allow rapid electronic collection of data from a large number of points.
However, their installation can be time consuming and costly, particularly on
sites exposed to the weather
• Mechanical devices, such as dial gages, are typically more reliable, but
collection of data can be slow, and requires that someone enter into the
structure during performance of the test, which can be dangerous. These
devices are valuable for measuring small deflections in stiff structures
• Large deflections can be easily measured by suspending graduated scales from
critical points and reading them remotely with a surveyor’s level
• Supplementing the analytical evaluation with load tests
5.2
• Deflection measurement devices should be placed at the point(s) of maximum
expected deflection. Devices should also be placed at the supports to detect column
shortening, if deemed appropriate by the investigator
• Crack width can be measured by using graduated magnifying glasses, or “crack
comparators.” Their use during a load test is, of course, restricted for safety
reasons. If they are used, marks should be placed at each point on the cracks where
readings are to be taken so that subsequent readings are taken at the same positions
• Crack movement (opening or closing) can be measured with dial gages,
displacement transducers, or mechanical strain gages. Crack movement can also be
measured accurately by using gage points and a mechanical extensometer
• Thermometers or thermocouples should be used to measure the ambient
temperature during a load test. Temperature readings should be taken in all areas of
a structure that are affected by the load test. For structural slabs, thermometers
should be placed above and below the slab surface. Accurate records of variations
of sunlight should be maintained for roof slabs and other areas of the structure
which are exposed to direct sunlight during performance of a load test
Crack Comparators Displacement Transducers
• Supplementing the analytical evaluation with load tests
5.2
Shoring
Before applying load for a physical
load test, shoring must be provided to
support the structure with all existing
loads, test loads and impact effects in
case of failure during the test and must
prevent the working people.