Section 10.

1: Cell Growth, Division, and Reproduction

I. Limits to Cell Size

*2 reasons why cells divide rather than continuing to

grow:
1) The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the
cell
places on its DNA.

2) A larger cell is less efficient in moving the needed

amounts of nutrients in and waste out; diffusion takes
too long!
A. Information “Overload”

1. Cellular information is stored in a cell’s DNA; as a

cell increases in size, however, it does not increase its
amount of DNA.

2. If the cell becomes too large the DNA will not be

able to produce enough proteins to keep it
functioning.

B. Exchanging Materials

1. Cells require food, O2, and H2O and need to

eliminate waste, the rate at which they can do this
depends on the surface area of the membrane.
2. The rate at which food and O2 are used up and the
amount of waste products that are produced depends on
the cell’s volume.

3. Ratio of Surface Area to Volume:

a) Area = Length (l) x Width (w)

*assume a cell is shaped like a cube, which has 6 sides;

Surface Area = l x w x 6

b) Volume = Length (l) x Width (w) x Height (h)

c) Volume increases faster than the surface area as a
cell grows in size.
d) As volume increases there becomes less surface area, or
membrane, to allow for diffusion/osmosis of materials in
and out of the cell. Therefore the cell winds up using up
the materials faster than it can replace them.

*If this continues over a long period of time the cell will
die.

C. Division of the Cell

*Before it becomes too large, a growing cell divides and

forms 2 “daughter” cells.
 1. Cell Division – the process by which a cell divides into
2 new daughter cells.

2. Prior to cell division, the cell replicates or copies all

of its DNA, therefore each of the new cells gets an
identical copy and amount of the genetic information.

II. Cell Division and Reproduction

A. Asexual Reproduction

*Many single-celled organisms reproduce via cell

division; there is NO sex involved, they simply divide
their cells.
1. Asexual Reproduction – the production of genetically
identical offspring from a single parent.

2. Asexual Reproduction can be simple, efficient, and

effective at increasing the size of a population quickly
(think exponential growth – J shaped curve)

3. It can also occur in many multicellular organisms such

such as the Hydra or Kalanchoe plant.

*the most common form of asexual reproduction is

called Binary Fission.

Note the Hydra in the picture…

Notice how it is creating a whole

new organism by simply dividing its
cells. This new appendage is
called a bud.

Eventually the bud will detach

itself from the parent and become
its own individual.
This is the Kalanchoe plant, notice the little plantlets that
are forming along its body, these can be removed and will
develop into plants themselves.
B. Sexual Reproduction

1. Sexual Reproduction – involves the fusion of two

separate parent cells; the egg and the sperm.

2. Offspring produced
by sexual reproduction
inherit genetic information
from each parent, half
from their mother, half
from their father.
C. Comparing Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Asexual
1) Occurs in single-celled organisms
as well as a few multicellular ones
2) When conditions are right, they
can produce quickly and can
overtake slower reproducers
3) Genetically Identical offspring,
can be a plus as long as
environment remains favorable
Sexual
1) Occurs mainly in multicellular
organisms with a few single-celled
organisms, such as yeast being the
exception
2) Reproduce more slowly; takes
time to find a mate and reproduce
with them
3) Genetically different offspring;
this is a bonus in a changing
environment, diversity = evolution
Section 10.2: The Process Of Division

I. Chromosomes

*Every chromosome is copied prior to division so that

the new cells get the same information as the original
parent cell.

*Chromosomes – the
packaged DNA that
contains genetic information.
A. Prokaryotic Chromosomes

1. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and many of the

organelles found in eukaryotes.

2. Prokaryotic DNA is located within the cytoplasm.

3. The prokaryotic
chromosome is generally
a simple, circular piece
of DNA.
B. Eukaryotic Chromosomes

1. Eukaryotes enclose their DNA within a nucleus.

2. They tend to have more DNA than Prokaryotes.

3. chromatin – DNA that is tightly coiled around

proteins called histones.

4. nucleosomes – beadlike structures that consist of

7-8 histones and the DNA coiled around them.

*Chromosomes make it possible to separate DNA

precisely during cell division.
Anatomy of a Chromosome
III. The Cell Cycle

*Cell Cycle – when a cell grows, prepares for division,

then divides to form 2 daughter cells.

A. The Prokaryotic Cell Cycle

1. The prokaryotic cell cycle is a regular pattern of

growth, DNA replication, and cell division that can
happen rapidly under ideal conditions.

2. Prokaryotic cell division is ASEXUAL and is known

as Binary Fission.
Binary Fission
B. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

1. Consists of 4 phases:

a) G1
b) S
c) G2
d) M
2. Interphase – a period of growth and preparation in
between divisions; composed of G1, S, G2. The cell spends
the majority of its time in interphase.

G = “Gap” or “Growth”

a) G1 Phase : Cell Growth

1) cell increases in size

2) synthesizes new proteins and organelles

b) S Phase: DNA Replication

1) S = “Synthesis”

2) New DNA is synthesized; chromosomes replicate

forming sister chromatids.

*at the end of S phase there are 2x the number of

chromosomes.
 c) G2 Phase: Preparing for Cell Division

1) Shortest phase of interphase

2) Organelles are replicated

3) Protein Synthesis is in high gear

3. M Phase: Cell Division

*M = Mitosis; the actual division phase

1) Nucleus divides

2) Chromosomes are equally divided between 2 cells

C. Mitosis

*4 Phases:

1) Prophase
2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase

*PMAT
1. Prophase

a) longest phase of mitosis

b) chromosomes condense;
sister chromatids are now
visible with the light microscope
c) spindle fibers are formed from the centrioles

d) nucleolus disappears

e) nuclear membrane disintegrates, no longer has a

nucleus.
2. Metaphase

a) shortest phase of mitosis

b) sister chromatids attach

to spindles at their centromere

*centromere – area where sisters are connected

c) sisters line up single file in the middle of the cell

3. Anaphase

a) centromeres break

b) sisters are separated

and now are referred to as
single chromosomes

c) single chromosomes make their way to complete

opposite sides of the cell
4. Telophase

a) final phase of mitosis

b) chromosomes uncoil;
they go back to chromatin
form
c) nuclear envelope reforms

d) spindles disintegrate
D. Cytokinesis

*Usually occurs in conjunction with telophase; it

completes the division of the cell by dividing the
cytoplasm.
1. Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

a) the cell membrane is drawn in; pinching towards

itself

b) once the 2 sides of the membrane touch, the

phospholipids rearrange themselves so that the two
cells separate.
2. Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

a) because the cell wall is rigid, it cannot just pinch in on

itself as seen with the membrane in the animal cell
cytokinesis

b) a cell plate is laid down by vesicles formed from the

golgi apparatus

c) these vesicles fuse together, forming one large vesicle

down the middle of the cell

d) enzymes within the vesicles secrete the components

to build a new cell wall and cell membranes for the two
cells
Cytokinesis in Animals vs. Plants
Mitosis in Onion Root Cells
Summary of Mitosis
Section 10.3 Regulating the Cell Cycle

*not all cells move through the cell cycle at the same
rate

*some cells rapidly and often ex) skin, blood, digestive

*some cells don’t divide at all ex) muscle, nerve

I. Controls on Cell Division

*density-dependent inhibition – cells will divide until

they touch each other or until they run out of room;
then they will cease to divide.
Density Dependent Inhibition
A. Discovery of Cyclins

1. early 1980’s – biologists discover a protein present in

cells during mitosis; when the protein was injected into
a non-dividing cell the cell began to form spindles.
2. cyclin – proteins that regulate the cell cycle.

B. Regulatory Proteins

*There are a number of regulatory proteins that have

been discovered to date, that regulate the cell cycle
internally and externally.
1. Internal Regulators – proteins that respond to events
occurring within the cell.

a) they allow the cell to proceed through the cycle only

when certain events have occurred

b) some prevent the cell from entering mitosis until all

the chromosomes have made copies of themselves

c) some prevent anaphase from occurring until all the

spindles have attached to the sisters at their
centromeres
Cyclins are produced in a pattern, they are built up during
certain times in the cell cycle, then degrade themselves
when they are no longer needed.
2. External Regulators – proteins that respond to events
outside the cell.

a) these proteins direct cells to speed up or slow down

the cycle

b) Growth Factors – stimulate the growth and division of

cells; important during embryonic development and
and wound healing

c) Inhibitory Factors – slows down cellular division to

prevent excessive growth
C. Apoptosis

*Cells end their life in one of two ways:

1) a cell may die by accident, due to damage or

injury

2) a cell may be programmed to die

1. Apoptosis – programmed cell death (PCD)

2. Once a cell is triggered to go through apoptosis a
number of things occur.
3. Stages of Apoptosis:
a) the cell, as well as its chromatin, shrink
b) the cell membrane begins to break apart
c) neighboring cells are signaled to clean up the debris
Apoptosis is used to get rid of cells that are no longer
needed during fetal development, such as those found in
the webbed hands and feet of the developing embryo.
II. Cancer: Uncontrolled Cell Growth

1. Cancer – a disorder in which body cells lose their

ability to control growth and division.

2. Cancer cells do not respond to the regulatory signals

and thus divide uncontrollably.

3. Tumor – mass of uncontrolled cellular activity.

a) benign – noncancerous – does not spread to

other tissues.

b) malignant – cancerous; invade and destroy the

surrounding healthy tissues.
*metastasis – term used for when cancer spreads
 Types of Cancer

Esophageal Cancer Brain Cancer

Lung Cancer
Breast Cancer Prostate Cancer Testicular Cancer

Colon Cancer
Mouth Cancer
Skin Cancer
A. What Causes Cancer?

1. Some cancers are caused by defects in genes that

regulate cellular growth and division; p53 gene

2. carcinogens – chemicals that cause cancer

a) tobacco; 1st and 2nd hand smoke
b) radiation
c) viruses; HPV
Section 10.4 Cell Differentiation

*There are over 100,000,000,000,000 (one hundred

trillion) cells in the human body; all with different jobs

*How did these cells become specialized?

I. From one to many

*We all start life out as

one cell called a zygote
 *the zygote eventually
develops into an embryo which
eventually becomes as adult

A. Defining Differentiation

1. differentiation – the process by which cells become

specialized.

2. During the development of an organism cells

differentiate into many types of cells.
B. Mapping Differentiation

1. The process of differentiation determines a cells

ultimate identity.

2. Mapping cells in Caenorhabditis elegans:

C. Differentiation in Mammals

1. In mammals all differentiation is controlled by a

number of interacting factors in the embryo; many of
these are still not fully understood.

2. Adult cells eventually reach a point where they are

no longer capable of becoming other cells.

III. Stem Cells and Development

*totipotent – a single cell that is able to do everything,

and has the potential to develop in to any type of cell in
the body.
 *Only the fertilized egg and the first few cells produced
from its division are truly “totipotent.”

A. Human Development

1. blastocyst – a hollow ball of cells with a cluster of

cells within; formed by day 4 of the pregnancy.
 2. Cells of the blastocyst are already en route to
specialization.

3. The cells inside the blastocyst are Pluripotent.

4. Pluripotent – can develop into most, but not all,

of the body’s cell types.

B. Stem Cells

1. Stem cells – the unspecialized cells from which

differentiated cells develop.
2. Embryonic Stem Cells

a) These are pluripotent cells found in the early embryo

b) 1998 – researches at the University of Wisconsin

found a way to grow embryonic stem cells in culture

c) Sperm made from

stem cells have been
used to make
live mice.
3. Adult Stem Cells

a) These are groups of cells that differentiate to renew

and replace cells in the adult body.

b) Multipotent – more limited potential to develop into

many types of differentiated cells.

c) Adult stem cells of a given organ or tissue can

produce only cells that are unique to that tissue.

ex) adult stem cells in bone  produce different

blood cells

ex) stem cells in brain  produce neurons

III. Frontiers in Stem Cell Research

*No one knows for certain the exact pathway a stem

cell follows to become a specialized cell.

A. Potential Benefits

1. If Scientists can figure out how a cell becomes

specialized they can use stem cells to produce:
a) new heart cells for people that have a
damaged heart from a heart attack
b) new nerve cells for people who are paralyzed
c) new brain cells for people who suffered strokes
2. Stem cells offer the potential benefit of using
undifferentiated cells to repair or replace badly damaged
cells and tissues.
Stem Cell Therapy
B. Ethical Issues

1. Because adult stem cells can be obtained with

consent from the donor, few problems arise when
using
them for research.
2. Embryonic Stem Cells must be harvested from an
embryo, and as a result, often cause destruction to the
embryo.
a) this is a concern for people who regard the
embryo as entitled to rights
b) this has caused political upheaval when it comes
to government funding for this type of research
3. New research is indicating there may be ways to extract
embryonic cells without destroying the embryo.

4. Some research indicates that adult cells may be able to

be turned back into pluripotent embryonic stem cells, and
thus will prevent the need for using embryos.
Lesson Overview
11.4 Meiosis
OBJECTIVES:
• Contrast the number of chromosomes in body cells and in gametes.

• Summarize the events of meiosis.

• Contrast meiosis and mitosis.

Chromosome Number
• Chromosomes are the carriers of genes.

• The genes are located in specific positions on chromosomes.

Diploid Cells
• A body cell in an adult fruit fly has eight
chromosomes (seen on the right)

• Four from the male parent

• Four from the female parent

• homologous chromosomes
• Corresponding chromosomes from each
parent  pairs
• Diploid cell
• A cell having both sets of
chromosomes

• represented by the symbol 2N.

• for the fruit fly, the diploid number is 8

(2N = 8)
Haploid Cells
• Haploid cells
• Contain a single set of chromosomes or genes

• Gametes of sexually reproducing organisms (egg and sperm)

• Represented by the symbol N

• For fruit fly gametes, the haploid number is 4 (N = 1)

Phases of Meiosis
• Meiosis
• process in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half

• Homologous chromosomes in a body cell are separated

• involves two distinct divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II)

• INVOLVES:
– Duplication of chromosomes, first division (meiosis I), second
division (meiosis II)
– 46  92 (duplication)  46 (first division)  23 (second
division)

• END RESULT:
• ONE diploid cell will become FOUR haploid cells
Gametes to Zygotes
gametes
• haploid cells produced in meiosis….egg and sperm

fertilization
• Fusion of male and female gametes
• Forms a zygote
• Undergoes mitosis to form a new organism
Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis
Mitosis
• Form of asexual reproduction
• when the two sets of genetic material separate, each daughter cell
receives one complete set of chromosomes
• Does not change chromosome number of original cell
• Single cell division

Meiosis
• early step in sexual reproduction
• two alleles for each gene segregate from each other and end up in
different cells
• Reduces chromosome number by half
• Two cell divisions
LE 13-8a

INTERPHASE MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes

PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

Centrosomes Centromere Sister chromatids

(with centriole pairs) (with kinetochore) remain attached
Sister Chiasmata
chromatids Metaphase
Spindle plate

Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin Tetrad Microtubule Homologous
attached to chromosomes
kinetochore separate

Chromosomes duplicate Homologous chromosomes Tetrads line up Pairs of homologous

(red and blue) pair and chromosomes split up
exchange segments; 2n = 6
in this example
LE 13-8b

MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids

TELOPHASE I AND TELOPHASE II AND

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II
CYTOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage Haploid daughter cells

furrow Sister chromatids forming
separate

Two haploid cells

form; chromosomes During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;
are still double four haploid daughter cells result, containing single chromosomes
LE 13-9
MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Parent cell Chiasma (site of

MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome replication) crossing over)

Propase Prophase I
Chromosome Chromosome
replication replication Tetrad formed by
Duplicated chromosome synapsis of homologous
2n = 6
(two sister chromatids) chromosomes

Chromosomes Tetrads
Metaphase positioned at the positioned at the Metaphase I
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase Sister chromatids Homologues Anaphase I

Telophase separate during separate Telophase I
anaphase during
Haploid
anaphase I;
n=3
sister
chromatids
Daughter
remain together
cells of
meiosis I

2n 2n MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells
of mitosis
n n n n
Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

LE 13-10

Key

Maternal set of
chromosomes Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Paternal set of
chromosomes

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4

LE 13-11
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids

Tetrad

Chiasma,
site of
crossing
over
Metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Recombinant
chromosomes