Animals, like plants, are organized into definite

systems.
Most exhibit bilateral symmetry, a body form
in which the right and left halves are approximately
mirror images of one another.

Others have radial symmetry, whereby there

is regular arrangement of parts around the central axis
that any plane passing through the central axis divides
the organism into halves that are approximate mirror
images.
 A few like the sponges do not show definite
symmetry, they are described as asymmetrical.
Aside from symmetry, the animal body is also
organized into definite regions or segments, a
condition known as segmentation. If the segments
are similar with each other (so called somites or
metameres), the condition is called metamerism.
Some segments that are structurally different from
one another may become fused into functional groups
or tagmata by a process known as tagmatization.
 The following terms are important in describing
the location of specific structures of an animal with
reference to its horizontal position.

Anterior – the “head-end”, the end directed forward in

locomotion; opposite of posterior.
Posterior – the “tail-end”, opposite of anterior.

Cephalic – pertaining to or toward the head; opposite of

caudal
Caudal – towards the tail; opposite of cephalic
Dorsal – the back or upper surface; opposite of ventral
Ventral – the belly or the lower surface; opposite of
ventral

Lateral – on or towards the side

Medial – on or towards the middle

Proximal – toward the central part; opposite the distal

Distal – toward the extremities of the body; opposite
of proximal
Peripheral – near the surface of the body
Sea Star
 Characteristics of sea stars (or
starfish)
 Sea stars are characterized by
radial symmetry, several arms
(5 or multiplied by 5)
radiating from a central body.
Mouth and anus are close
together on the underside,
the anus is at the center of the
disc together with the water
intake (madreporite). The
upper surface is often very
colorful. These structures
ensure that the surface of the
arms stay free from algae. The
underside is often a lighter
color.
 There are a few starfish that have
6 or 7 arms. Others normally
have 5 arms but now have more
arms, because after an injury an
arm divided and grew into two
arms.
 The majority of sea stars are
carnivorous and feed on
sponges, bryozoans, ascidians
and molluscs.
 Other starfishes are detritus
feeders (detritus = organically
enriched film that covers
rocks) or scavengers. Some
starfish are specialized
feeders, for example the
crown-of-thorns that feeds on
life coral polyps.
 Starfish have no hard mouth
parts to help them capture
prey. The stomach is
extruded over the prey, thus
surrounding the soft parts
with the digestive organs.
Digestive juices are secreted
and the tissue of the prey
liquefied. The digested food
mass, together with the
stomach is then sucked
back in. This method can be
observed, if you turn around
a starfish, that sits on prey
or sand - you will see the
stomach retreating.
 Starfish are well known for their powers
of regeneration. A complete new animal
can grow from a small fragment such as
arm. In some species (Linckia multifora
and Echinaster luzonicus) one of the
arms will virtually pull itself away,
regenerates and forms a new animal.
Autotomy (self amputation) usually is a
protective function, losing the body part
to escape a predator rather than being
eaten. But here it serves as a form of
asexual reproduction. In other species
of sea stars (Allostichaster polyplax and
Coscinasterias calamaria) the body is
broken into unequal parts (= fission)
then the missing limbs regenerate.
EARTHWORM  Earthworms (also called
nightcrawlers) are very
important animals that aerate
the soil with their burrowing
action and enrich the soil with
their waste products (called
castings). Good soil can have as
many as 1,000,000 (a million)
worms per acre. There are over
3,000 species of earthworms
around the world. These
invertebrates (animals without a
backbone) range in color from
brown to red, and most have a
soft body. Earthworms range in
size from a few inches long to
over 22 feet long. The largest
earthworms live in South Africa
and Australia.
 Anatomy and Diet: The
brain, hearts, and breathing
organs are located in the first
few segments of the worm. It
has five pairs of hearts! The
rest of the inside of an
earthworm is filled with the
intestines, which digest its
food. Earthworms eat soil and
the organic material in it -
like insect parts and bacteria.
The mouth is covered by a
flap (called the prostomium)
which helps the earthworm
sense light and vibrations.
Tiny bristles (called setae) are
on most segments of the
earthworm's body.
 Reproduction: Although
each earthworm is
hermaphroditic (having
both male and female
reproductive systems), it
takes two worms to mate
and reproduce. The
reproductive organs are in
the clitellum (the enlarged
segments in the middle of
an earthworm). The
clitellum later forms a
cocoon which protects the
developing eggs.
COCKROACH
 The head is composed of
fused sclerites. On the
dorsal surface between the
compound eye is the
epicranium.
 Anterior to the epicranium
is a large, flat sclerite, the
frons
 Below is a broad plate, the
clypeus, followed by the
labrum.
 The cheek found on each
lateral side is called the
gena.
2. The Thorax
 The membranous
conjunctivae or neck
called cervix, which
connects the head to the
thorax.
 The thorax is composed
of three segments, the
anterior prothorax, the
medial mesothorax and
the posterior
metathorax.
 Attached to the thoracic
segmet is a pair of legs. Each
leg is composed of several
segments.
 The most proximal is the flat
coxa, followed by the minute
triangular trochanter.
 This is connected to the long
femur which may bear a few
spines.
 Distal to this is the slender
tibia, which is very spiny, and
the tarsus with its five joints.
 The most distal segment of
the tarsus is the pretarsus, at
the terminus of which is the
pulvillus bearing hooks or
claws.
 On segments 2 to 8, the
minute ventro-lateral
spiracles are found. These are
apertures for gas exchange.
 The cerci is found in the most
posterior region of the
cockroach which is a pair of
slender processes.
 If the cockroach has two pairs
of processes, then it is a male,
the outer pair is the cerci, and
the inner pair is the style.
 Female do not possess cerci.
THE SHRIMP
 In shrimps and prawns
the head and the thorax
are fused into
cephalothorax.
FROG
 The head
 The triangular region is
referred to as the snout. There
are two openings at its tip
called the external nares that
serve in respiration.
 Below the external nares is a
transverse slit, the mouth
 Positioned laterally behind
each eye is a flat, circular
structure, the ear or
tympanic membrane.
 Posterior to this are large
swellings, the parotid or
poison glands which secrete
sticky, whitish to yellow poison
when frog is irritated.
 The trunk
 The smooth ventral region
is the abdomen or belly.
 The elevation found in the
mid-dorsally of the trunk
is the hump
 At the posterior end is a
small opening, the vent or
the anus.
 Attached to the trunk are
two pairs of limbs, the
short forelegs or anterior
limbs and the long
hindlegs or posterior
limbs.
 For the anterior limb, the
most proximal segment is the
upper arm which is joined by
the elbow to the forearm.
The forearm is connected to
the hand by a wrist. Attached
to the palm of the hand are
four digits or fingers.
 You will see a small bump
underneath the “thumb” or
rudimentary fifth finger. This
becomes swollen in male
toads during breeding
season.
 For the posterior limb, the
most proximal fleshy
segment is the thigh,
which is joined by the knee
to the shank or lower leg.
 Distal to this short ankle or
tarsal is connected to the
long foot, to which five
digits or toes are attached .
Note the skin or webs
which connect the digits.
Not e the presence of a
sixth toe, the prehallux on
the inner side of the
smallest toe