Scientific Writing

Style & Structure

IV-ED1

Mrs. Decena
 Scientific Writing
“If I have seen further it is by standing on the
shoulders of giants.”
– Isaac Newton … sort of.
 General Considerations for
Scientific Writing

• Thoroughly understand your sources.

• Support everything with evidence, and
distinguish fact from possibility.
• Know your audience.
• Never make your readers work harder than they
have to.
 Using Your Sources
• Scientific writing rarely uses direct quotation.
• Extensive paraphrasing often indicates a lack of
understanding.
• Information from other sources, if used, will
usually be summarized.
• Don’t be afraid to ask questions!
 Questioning Your Sources
• What specific questions were asked?
• How was the study designed, and how did the
design of the study address the question posed?
• What are the specific results of the study? How
convincing are they?
• What assumptions were made? Did they seem
reasonable?
• What contribution does the study make toward
answering the original question?
• What aspects of the original question remain
unanswered?
-from A Short Guide to Writing about Biology by Jan A. Pechenik
In this paper, preliminary investigation was conducted to evaluate
the potential ecological risk of heavy metals contamination in
cemetery soils. Necrosol samples were collected from within and
around the vicinity of the largest mass grave in Rwanda and
analyzed for heavy metal concentrations using total digestion-
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and instrumental
neutron activation analysis. The preliminary results revealed that
the associated cemetery soils are only contaminated to a low
degree. On the other hand, assessment of the potential ecological
risk index (RI) revealed that cumulative heavy metal content of the
soil does not pose any significant ecological risks. These findings,
therefore, suggest that, while cemetery soils may be toxic due to the
accumulation of certain heavy metals, their overall ecological risks
may be minimal and insignificant.

-from “Potential Ecological Risk of Heavy Metal Distribution in Cemetery Soils”

Amuno, SA. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 224. 2 (Feb 2013): 1-12.
 Support Everything with
Evidence…
• All statements, whether fact or opinion, require
support. You may, for example, use…

 Peer-reviewed Journals
 Quantitative Results (including your own data!)
 Government/Academic Reports

• Be critical of the sources you use to

support your assertions.
 … and Distinguish Fact from
Possibility.
• Statements in a scientific paper need a
significant consensus to meet the requirements
of a “fact.”
• You may form an opinion, but can you support
it to scientific standards?
• Use verbs like suggest, seem, appear, exhibit,
indicate, point to, express, and assert.
• “If [x] is true, then [y].”
 Fact or possibility?
1. Anecdotal evidence suggests that cockroaches respond
to electrical appliances or outlets.

2. Cockroach infestation was found in 45 (65.2%)

institutions and 558 cockroaches were collected.

3. Disgust and fear are basic emotions that protect

humans against pathogens and/or predators.
 Never make your readers work
harder than they have to.
• Don’t make your readers guess the significance
of your assertions. Tell them!
• Move logically from one point to the next, and
make sure your writing shows the progression
of your ideas.
• Be clear, be correct, and be concise!
• Seriously. Be concise.
“Write to illuminate, not to impress. Use the
simplest words and the simplest phrasing
consistent with that goal.”
– Jan A. Pechenik
 Concise Writing

In order to be able to examine and analyze our

data, we utilized a number of computer software
packages dedicated to conducting statistical
evaluations.
- sentence from a graduate science paper
We used statistical software to analyze our data.

- suggested revision
 Concise Writing

It was found that the shell lengths of live snails

tended to be larger for individuals collected closer
to the low tide mark (Fig. 1).
Snails found closer to the low tide mark typically
had larger shells (Fig. 1).
 Transitions

The energy needs of a resting otter are 3 times

those of terrestrial animals of comparable size. The
sea otter eats about 25% of its body weight daily.
Sea otters feed at night as well as during the day.
The energy needs of a resting otter are 3 times
those of terrestrial animals of comparable size. To
support such a high metabolic rate, the sea
otter must eat about 25% of its body weight daily.
Moreover, sea otters feed continually, at night
as well as during the day.
 Know Your Audience
• Who are you writing to? The answer to this
question should help determine the choices
you make while writing.
• Make your paper self-sufficient: define terms,
explain abbreviations, clarify details. Don’t
assume pre-existing knowledge that your
readers might not have.
• Your audience for a scientific paper will have
certain expectations for format, tone, and
style.
 Audience Expectations
• Your audience will usually expect a specific
organization for your paper:

IMRaD
Introduction, Methods/Materials, Results and Discussion

• “The text of an article … will usually be some

variation of the IMRaD form.”
-from Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors,
and Publishers by The Council of Science Editors
 Introduction
• Generally written in present tense
• Establishes the framework for the entire paper.
 Background information that leads to a clear statement
of the specific issue(s) your paper will address (the
topic)
 An argument that justifies the study – why did you
write this paper/conduct this research? How does it
relate to other research?(the justification)
 A (brief) explanation of your results and conclusions.
• Stick to the point! Only include information that is
directly relevant to the paper.
 Methods/Materials
• Generally written in past tense
• A balanced level of detail–enough to replicate
your results without overwhelming your reader
• Remember–be precise!
• How did you collect your information, and what
did you do with it?
 Include formulas, measurements, software, locations,
test subjects, alien invasions … everything!
 Consider any factor that may have influenced your
results.
 Results

• Usually written in past tense

• What did you find out?
• Present your results without interpretation.
• Don’t exclude information, even if it conflicts
with your expectations or with your hypothesis.
 Discussion
• Typically written in present tense
• What do the results mean?
 What did you expect, and why?
 Did the results match your expectations?
 How do your results compare to the work of
earlier researchers?
 Based on your results, what questions would you
ask next?
• Remember to clearly distinguish facts from
possibilities.
 Review

• Thoroughly understand your sources.

• Support everything with evidence, and
distinguish fact from possibility.
• Know your audience.
• Never make your readers work harder than they
have to.