DISTURBED LANDSCAPES

• any portion of land surface that has been altered and is not in an attractive, stable, or productive
condition .
• vulnerable to erosion
• surfaces unsuitable for plant growth because of compaction, steepness, stoniness, infertility, acidity, or
instability.
• Floods, fire, volcanic eruption, agriculture, mining, highway construction, overuse, and land
development are examples of natural events and human activities which create disturbed landscapes .
Problem of Erosion

• Soils develop slowly through complex organic and inorganic processes .

• 100 years are required for the formation of 25 mm (1 in) of topsoil in typical subhumid regions .
• In arid regions and high-altitude areas, where natural processes are much slower than in humid regions, 1000 years may be
required .
• Topsoil is clearly a most valuable and limited natural resource which has to be managed with great care and responsibility.
• Each year in the United States, 3 600 billion kg (4 billion tons) of soil erode from the land .
RECLAMATION PROCESS
• To speed up the reclamation process, provide better reclamation conditions, and significantly reduce the costs
• The following steps are essential :
1 . Establishing objectives
a. meeting government standards
b. economic and social objectives- water quality, air quality, erosion, aesthetic, wildlife, adjacent areas
Evaluation of objectives
specific and quantifiable
realistic and acceptable

1 . Determine the amount of erosion which will occur on a disturbed site during certain high-precipitation events 2 .
Determine the frequency of these events and establish the risk for any given year.
3 . Determine the loss and damage which would result from the event .
4 . Design features to reclamate erosion from the event.
5 . Determine the cost of reclamation measures and compare these with anticipated damages and projected benefits .
2.Factors Influencing Methods of Reclamation

Successful reclamation requires,

a. basic knowledge of site
b. nature of disturbance

Site factors,

o existing soil characteristics

o existing vegetation
o annual and seasonal precipitation
o Temperature extremes
o evaporation rate
o wind
o slope
o drainage patterns
o animal, insect, and human behavior patterns .
3. Selecting Appropriate Reclamation Methods, Materials, and Developing a Plan

Reclamation process should include,

1 . Protection of soil, water quality, wildlife, and adjacent undisturbed areas
2 . Landshaping and stratigraphy
3 . Surface conditioning
4. Planting
5 . Establishment and maintenance of vegetation
PROTECTION OF SOIL, WATER QUALITY, AND ADJACENT
UNDISTURBED AREAS
basic measures of controlling and limiting the effect of disturbances include :

1 . limiting the size of disturbances during construction by

a. indicating them on the plans
b. using barricades and boundary markers on-site
2 . Correcting unstable conditions by
a. removing problem areas
b. constructing walls
3 . Protecting disturbed surfaces from erosion as soon as possible by
covering and seeding
4. Keeping storm runoff velocities low by
roughening surfaces
constructing check dams
5 . Protecting disturbed surfaces from storm runoff by
a. constructing diversion ditches, dikes, and conduits
6 . Retaining sediment on-site by
a. constructing sediment ponds, silt fences, and filter boxes

7 . Ensuring the soil surface has adequate roughness to lessen the impacts of overland water flow and sediment
transport (the rougher the better)
• Sediment and Erosion Control Devices

 objectives of any revegetation or erosion control plan should be to stabilize soils and manage erosion
 minimum cost.

1.Sediment Control Techniques :

Sediment basin - Sediment basins are ponds created by excavation that are usually temporary in design and
are intended to collect and store sediment from sites that are cleared
Straw bale dikes : slow runoff velocities,

Gravel bag structures : Bags are constructed of burlap or polypropylene, filled with suitable material
(sand or sediments) and placed or stacked on the soil surface

Rock check dams - Check dams are rock dams constructed across drainageways to dissipate the energy
of flowing water and reduce gully erosion .
2. Erosion Control Technologies

• vegetation
temporary erosion and revegetation materials: Materials of a temporary nature which facilitate vegetative
establishment, then degrade.

3. Turf Reinforcement Mats: Turf reinforcement is a method by which the natural ability of plants to
protect soil from erosion is enhanced through the use of geosynthetic materials .

• retains seeds and soil

• stimulates seed germination,
• accelerates seedling development
LANDSHAPING AND STRATIGRAPHY

• land shaping
• dependent upon the proposed land use objectives
• care should be taken to create reasonable slopes .
• The steeper and longer the disturbed slope, the more
difficult it is to reclaim .
• as the percent of slope doubles, soil loss increases 2 .6
times, and as the length of slope doubles, soil loss
increases 3 times.

• Stratigraphy:
• layering of subsurface materials .
• have a significant impact on stability, on water holding
capacity, and on the effect of buried toxic materials .
• Toxic materials should be placed as deep as possible in
locations unaffected by groundwater.
SURFACE CONDITIONING

concerned with the chemical and physical nature of the top several centimetres of growth medium.
Topsoil : preferred growing medium .

The cost of topsoil removal and replacement is typically less than changing the chemical and physical properties of
subsoil to make it suitable as a plant growing medium .

contains important soil fauna and bacteria which are active in maintaining aeration, water infiltration, and root
penetration and in transforming minerals into forms useful to plants .

Improving Water Retention Capacity:

by adding organic matter, such as treated sewage sludge, manure, or compost. Sewage sludge is good because it
contains nutrients and trace elements essential to plant growth.
Modifying Acidic Soils :

• High acidity results from the oxidation of minerals like sulfides .

• modified by adding lime.
• The SMP buffer pH test is used for to determine lime application rates .
• correcting low pH, lime will :
1 . Improve the physical condition of soil .
2 . Add calcium to the soil .
3 . Accelerate the decomposition of organic matter, releasing nitrogen .
4. Increase fertilizer efficiency.
5 . Increase nutrient availability .
6. Decrease toxicity of aluminum and ferric ions as well as decrease the availability of heavy metals such
as lead, mercury, and cadmium .

 Soil materials low in nutrients can be improved by applying fertilizer.

PLANTING

selection of plant materials is depend upon land use objectives and various site factors .

Temporary Erosion Control Plantings : selected for their ability to establish a quick cover.
eg : ryegrass, barley field brome, oats, winter rye, wheat and millets.

Permanent Plantings: should be well adapted to the site.( Should be able to reproduce and sustain their population for a
sustainable period of time.)

MAINTENANCE OF VEGETATION
1 . Supplemental watering (particularly important for trees and shrubs in arid areas)
2 . Periodic fertilization to increase plant vigor
3 . burning to favor perennials
4 . Fencing, screening, and the use of chemical repellents and poisons for pest control
 SOUND
CONTROL
1. INTRODUCTION
a. Basic Approaches to Sound Control

Acoustical Planning (Preplanning)

• Acoustical planning should be part of any land use planning project, especially with such major projects as
airports, highways, and railroads
• Acoustical models should be developed and tested to assess the planning implications both on and off the
property
• More desirable than retrofitting
• Can identify major noise sources and reasons
• Can take economical strategy
• Can reduce noise without compromising design
Retrofitting:
• May affect aesthetics of the existing design
• Establishing adequate rights-of-way or buffer zones is difficult
• Capital construction and eventual maintenance costs can become limiting factors .
b. Acoustic Variables
 Source of the Sound
 Path and Distance of Sound Transmission :
• Valleys and ravines can block the noise up to certain limit
 Receiver of the Sound:
• People who are accustomed to quiet landscapes are significantly less tolerant of noise than people accustomed to
suburban or urban environments .
• Masking of noise can sometimes be accomplished by introducing pleasant sounds, such as the sound of flowing
water or rustling leaves
2. PHYSICS OF SOUND

a. Nature of Sound Waves

• Sound waves are generated by any pulsation or vibration of a source .
• The surrounding air is disturbed, thereby causing pressure changes which can be heard .
• The greater the change in pressure, the louder the sound .
• The rate of repetition sound waves is referred to as frequency . It is measured in cycles per second or units of
hertz (Hz)
• The normal audible range for humans is 20 to 20,000 Hz
b. Sound Pressures and Decibels
• The measurement of sound is made more convenient by use of a logarithmic scale called the decibel (db) scale.
• To simulate human hearing, a sound measuring instrument is equipped with an electronic A-weighting filter
which corresponds to human detection of sound. Sound pressure levels measured with the A-weighting filter
switched on are given in dB(A) .
3 NOISE

a. Definition and Sources of Noise

• Under all circumstances, any unwanted, unpleasant, loud, or harsh sound is referred to as noise

b. Units of Noise Measurement

• The A-weighted sound level [dB(A)] is typically used to measure sound levels in environmental studies.
CONTROL OF NOISE OUTDOORS
Source of the Sound
Path and Distance of the Sound Transmission
Sound Barriers
Earth Berms
Barrier Walls and Earth Berms
Vegetation
Building Layout and Site Selection
Measures to control noise can be divided into three categories
1 . Source of the sound
2 . Path and distance of the sound transmission
3 . Receiver of the sound
The sound level at a receiver can be calculated by the following
equation :
LP = LW - (20 log R) – 8 , where:
LP =sound level at receiver, dB(A)
LW = sound level of source, dB(A)
R = distance between source and receiver, (ft)
SOUND BARRIERS
The degree of attenuation provided by a noise barrier is mainly a function of
1.the diffraction angle a through which the sound path must be bent in order
to get from source to receiver and
2.the frequency of the sound source
Five main factors that influence the acoustic effectiveness of a barrier are:
(1) distance, (2) height, (3) continuity, (4) length, and (5) mass.
An additional factor influencing the acoustic effectiveness of a barrier is the
sound absorption capability of the barrier, i .e., the degree to which it
minimizes reflection of sound .
Distance (Placement of Barrier):
A sound barrier should be erected as close as possible to either the noise
source or the receiving position in order to maximize the diffraction angle
(Figure 660-5) .
Height of Barrier:
The minimum height of the barrier
should be such that the line of sight
between source and receiver is
interrupted
Continuity of Barrier:
No gaps or holes should be present in a
noise barrier.
Length of Barrier.
should be at least 1 to 2 times the
distance between the barrier
Mass :
at least 6 to 12 kg/m2
Earth Berms
• careful design and situation of earth berms
can be an effective way of reducing noise
from traffic or construction operations .
• either be temporary or permanent
Barrier Walls and Earth Berms
Barrier walls can be used separately or in combination with
earth berms to minimize noise levels (Figure 660-11) .
Vegetation
• Areas covered with grass or other types of groundcover are more absorptive than hard, paved surfaces, which
tend to reflect the sound .
• Taller plantings, such as hedges or shallow screen plantings will not significantly reduce actual noise levels .
• dense plantings of trees with an understory of shrubs can result in a reduction of 3 to 5 dB(A) per 30 m (100 ft)
of depth from the sound source
Building Layout and Site Selection
Specially constructed noise barriers are expensive, but fortunately are not the only means available for noise
control . Other means available include :
1 . The use of existing or proposed buildings to shield others that are more sensitive
2 . The use of natural or constructed landscape features (hills and valleys, earth berms, etc.)
3 . The optimization of other site planning or design criteria.
DETAILS AND DEVICES
 PAVING

• to create a stable uniform subgrade and aggregate base condition to guard against differential
settlement over the pavement life.
 EDGES

• Serve to define a pavement and to separate two different materials

• serve to contain the pavement and prevent lateral creep
• provide additional support to prevent crushing due to loading at the edge.
• Concrete edging may act as a grade beam for flexible pavements and as a reinforcement for rigid
pavements.
• Wood edges are temporary
and require aggregate bases
to prolong the life of the wood
 JOINTS
• allow for expansion and
contraction in rigid
pavements
• join two different materials,
• For abutting slabs.

• Control joints in concrete

are required to provide
controlled break points in
the event of swelling
stresses.
• Expansion joints :for
contraction and
expansion due to
temperature
fluctuations.
 DIVIDERS

• create visual or
textural transitions
from one paving
material to another

Brick divider
 CURBS

• allow road and path

grades to be
depressed and to
act both as wheel
barriers and
stormwater runoff
containment edges.

• Wood curbs should

be used for
informal or
temporary
conditions only.
They require
extended
aggregate bases
and periodic pins to
secure them to the
pavement base.
• Brick and
masonry
curbs may
serve as light
duty curbs in
pedestrian
systems or
light
residential
drives in warm
climates.
• Stone curbs
are more
resistant to
plowing and
general
maintenance
• Concrete curbs
come in standard
profiles and may
be custom formed
to provide ramp
access.
 STEPS
• allow vertical
circulation within
the site
• Ramp steps
should be spaced
in multiples of
human strides,
typically 675
mm(27 in) riser to
riser.
• Exterior steps
have shorter
risers than do
interior steps,
typically 125-150
mm(5-6in).
• All treads should
slope 2% for
positive drainage.
 RAMPS
• allow vertical circulation
within the site

• Wood ramps should be

secured to concrete
footings and threshold
blocks for longer service
and structural integrity.
 FENCES
• range in height from900-2400 mm
• Simple wood fences may use direct burial posts which are either pressure treated or decay resistant wood.
• Long term fencing and commercial applications typically require concrete pier footings with metal attachment
devices to secure posts to footings.
 WALLS
• Stone walls should be built of
stones from the local region.
• Larger stones are typically laid in
bottom courses.
• Periodic single course tie stones
are useful for holding dry laid
walls together, especially in cold
climates.
• Mortared stone walls require
footing below frost line in cold
regions.
• Rake and tool all joints to avoid
moisture penetration, especially at
top of wall.
• Small concrete walls may not
require a spread footing.
• All walls subject to wind loads
typically require a spread footing,
with depth calculated for lateral
sheer, or frost depth.
 RETAINING WALLS

• Embankments greater than 1:1.5 typically exceed the natural angle of repose of most soils.
• Bank reinforcement in such circumstances usually consists of aggregates, stone, or masonry units of
sufficient weight to counteract the slope's tendency to slip along its shearing plane.
• The top of slope should be graded to prevent sheet flow runoff from washing across the slope.
• The toe of slope often requires a grade beam or stone reinforcement to withstand the accumulated
embankment surface weight.
• Vegetative reinforcement may require irrigation.
• Dry soil plants are recommended.
 SEATWALLS

• Except for informal garden walls, most Seatwalls require footings and careful back filling to account for
dampness and drainage.
LIGHTING
 PLANTING

• Successful tree planting begins with healthy plant material which has been protected from
transportation stress.
• Tree pits should be atleast twice the size of the container or tree ball, but three to four times the
diameter is recommended where space permits.
• Large trees should be placed directly on prepared subgrade at the tree pit center to avoid
settlement.
• Inorganiccontainers and wrappings should be removed
DRAINS
 SWALES

• A parabolic turf swale

is ideal for achieving
low velocity moderate
volume runoff
capacity.
• Generally, a swale
velocity of a given
slope, for a given
volume may be
reduced by
broadening its
crosssection and
reducing its full
flowing depth.
• High velocity Swales
require durable lining
to withstand the
scouring potential of
moving water.
 POOLS

• Flexible liners may be used on-

grade for temporary installations
using submersible pumps and
exposed pipes to protect the liner
integrity.
• Stones placed on liners must rest
on a drain mat or sand cushion .
• Heavy stones may require a sand
base beneath the liner as well.
• Custom built liners may be used in
conjunction with rigid structures to
allow for circulation intake and
drain hardware to be bonded on-
site.
• Rigid construction requires
provision for draining of aggregate
base to relieve hydro-static soil
pressure, especially during
seasonal drawdown or cleaning
periods.
 PONDS

• All wetland plants have specific soil, moisture,and depth tolerances.

• Cut embankments are commonly seeded and covered with protective matting.
• Planted waterline slopes are graded to a gradual depth of 450mm.
THANK YOU