Wireless

Comminication

Summary
Chapter 1: Overview
 Outline
1. History and Future

2. Current Wireless systems

3. Spectrum and Standards

4. Technical Challenges
 What is Wireless Communications

• Wireless applications: voice , internet access, web

browsing, paging and short messaging, subscriber
information services, file transfer, video
teleconferencing, entertainment, sensing and
distributed control.
• Wireless systems: cellular telephone systems,
wireless LANs, wide area wireless data systems,
satellite systems, and ad hoc wireless networks.
• Coverage regions: in-building, campus, city, regional
and global.
 Methods for Spectrum Allocation

• Allocate spectral blocks for specific purposes,

assigned through spectral auctions
• Specific frequency bands are set aside for universal
use, free to use.
• Underlay system, it operates as a secondary user in a
frequency band with other primary users.
• Innovations in regulation being considered
worldwide, for example, cognitive radios
 Standard

• Ensuring interoperability
• Allow economics of scale and pressure prices
lower.
• The standards process is not perfect,
companies often have their own agenda.
• Difficult to add new innovations and
improvements to an existing standard.
 Technical Challenges
• Wireless channels are a difficult and capacity-
limited broadcast communications medium
• Traffic patterns, user locations, and network
conditions are constantly changing
• Applications are heterogeneous with hard
constraints that must be met by the network
• Energy and delay constraints change design
principles across all layers of the protocol stack
• Spectrum limitation and incompatible standards
Chapter 2: Transmission
Fundations
 Outline

2.1 Signals for Conveying Information

2.2 Analog and Digital Transmissions

2.3 Channel Capacity

2.4 Transmission Media

2.5 Multiplexing
 Time Domain Concepts
• Sine wave is the fundamental periodic analog signal.
– Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the
signal over time; typically measured in volts
– Frequency (f )
• Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal repeats
– Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of
the signal. Equivalent parameter of f.
• T = 1/f
– Phase () - measure of the relative position in time within a
single period of a signal.
 Time Domain Concepts

– Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of

the signal
• Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two
consecutive cycles
• Assume signal is traveling with a velocity v.
• The wavelength is related to the period as:  = vT.
• Equivalently : f=v
• Particularly: f=c, when v=c(c is the speed of the light
in free space, approximately
3 108 m/s)
 Frequency Domain Concepts
• Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components of a
signal are integer multiples of one frequency, it’s referred to as
the fundamental frequency.
• The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the
fundamental frequency.
• Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains (in this
example, the spectrum extends from f to 3f)
• Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal (3f-
f=2f)
• Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) – when signals have
an infinite bandwidth, narrow band of frequencies that most of
the signal’s energy is contained in
 Analog and Digital Transmissions

 Analog and Digital Data

 Analog and Digital Signaling

 Analog and Digital Transmission

 Channel Capacity

• Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which data

can be transmitted over a given communication path,
or channel, under given conditions.
• Concepts Related to Channel Capacity
– Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps)
– Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as
constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the
transmission medium (Hertz)
– Noise - average level of noise over the communications
path
– Error rate - rate at which errors occur
• Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
 Channel Capacity

• Nyquist Bandwidth
– Consider a channel that is noise free, the limitation
on data rate is simply the bandwidth
– Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate
that can be carried is 2B.
– This limitation is due to the effect of intersymbol
interference.
 Channel Capacity

– For binary signals (two voltage levels), Nyquist

formulation is:
• C = 2B
– With multilevel signaling (each signal element can
represent more than one bit)
• C = 2B log2 M
– M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
• In this case the data rate can be increased, but this
places an increased burden on the receiver-it must
distinguish one of M possible signals.
 Channel Capacity

• Shannon Capacity Formula

 S
C  B log 2 1  SNR  B log 2  1  
 N
• [Conclusions]
– By increasing the SNR, the capacity could be
increased
– By increasing the bandwidth, the capacity may be
increased, but there is a limitation because the
noise power is relative to bandwidth as well.
 Transmission Media

• Transmission Medium
– Physical path between transmitter and receiver
• Guided Media
– Waves are guided along a solid medium
– E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
• Unguided Media
– Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals-refers to wireless transmission
– Usually referred to as wireless transmission
– E.g., atmosphere, outer space
 Multiplexing Techniques

• Multiplexing
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
– Each signal requires a certain bandwidth centered around its carrier
frequency, referred to as a channel.
– To prevent interference, the channels are separated by guard bands,
which are unused portions of the spectrum (not shown in the figure).

• Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

– Analogously to FDM, the sequence of time slots dedicated to a
particular source is called a channel.
– One cycle of time slots (one per source) is called a frame.
 Multiplexing

• Synchronous TDM: time slots are pre-assigned and

fixed. The timing of transmission from the various
sources is synchronized.
• Asynchronous TDM: allows time on the medium to
be allocated dynamically.
Chapter 3: Antenna and
Propagation
 Outline

3.1 Antennas

3.2 Propagation Modes

3.3 Line-of-Sight Transmission

3.4 Fading in Mobile Environment

 Antennas

• An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of

conductors
– Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
– Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space

• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be

used for transmission and reception
– Antenna characteristics are essentially the same whether an
antenna is sending or receiving electromagnetic energy.
 Radiation Patterns

• An antenna will radiate power in all directions but,

typically, does not perform equally well in all
directions.
• Radiation pattern: a common way to characterize the
performance of an antenna.
– A graphical representation of the radiation properties of an
antenna as a function of space coordinates.
 Radiation Patterns

• Beam width (or half-power beam width)

– Measure of directivity of antenna.
– Is the angle within which the power radiated by the antenna
is at least half of what it is in the most preferred direction.
• Reception pattern
– When an antenna is used for reception, equivalent to
radiation pattern.
– The longest sections of the pattern indicates the best
direction for reception.
 Antenna Types

• Dipoles
– Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
• Consists of two straight collinear conductors of equal
length, separated by a small feeding gap.
• The length of the antenna is one-half the wavelength of
the signal that can be transmitted most efficiently.
 Antenna Types

• Parabolic Reflective Antenna

– Used in terrestrial microwave and satellite
applications.
– In theory, this effect creates a parallel beam without
dispersion.
– In practice, there will be some dispersion, because the
source of energy must occupy more than one point.
– Note that the larger the diameter of the antenna,
the more tightly directional is the beam.
 Antenna Gain

• Antenna Gain: a measure of the directionality of an

antenna.
– Defined as the power output, in a particular direction,
compared to that produced in any direction by a perfect
omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna).
• Effective area
– Related to physical size and shape of antenna
• Relationship between antenna gain and effective area
4Ae 4f 2 Ae
G 
2
c 2
 Antenna Gain

• The table shows the antenna gain and effective area of some
typical antenna shapes.
 Propagation Modes

 Ground Wave Propagation

 Sky Wave Propagation

 Line-of-sight Propagation
 Propagation Modes
• Optical line of sight:
d  3.57 h
• Where d is the distance between an antenna and the
horizon in kilometers and h is the antenna height in
meters.
• Effective (radio) line of sight:
d  3.57 h
• Where K is an adjustment factor to account for the
refraction. A good rule of thumb is 4/3.
 Propagation Modes

• The maximum distance between two antennas

for LOS propagation is


3.57 h1  h2 
• Where h1 and h2 are the heights of the two antennas.
 Line-of-Sight Transmission

• With Line-of-Sight Transmission, the most

significant impairments are as follows:
• Attenuation and attenuation distortion
• Free space loss
• Noise
• Atmospheric absorption
• Multipath
• Refraction
 Line-of-Sight Transmission

• Attenuation
– Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission
medium
– Attenuation factors for guided media:
• Generally logarithmic and thus is typically expressed as a constant
number of decibels per unit distance.
– Attenuation factors for unguided media:
• More complex function of distance and the make up of the
atmosphere.
 Line-of-Sight Transmission

• Free Space Loss

– Any type of wireless communication the signal disperses
with distance.
– An antenna with a fixed area will receive less signal power
the farther it is from the transmitting antenna.
– A form of attenuation: even if no other sources of
attenuation or impairment are assumed, a transmitted signal
attenuates over distance because the signal is being spread
over a larger and larger area.
– The primary mode of signal loss for satellite
communication.
 Line-of-Sight Transmission
• Free Space Loss
– Can be expressed in terms of the ratio of the radiated power
to the power received by the antenna or in decibels.
– For ideal isotropic antenna

Pt 4d  4fd 
2 2
 
Pr 2
c 2

• Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna

• Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
•  = carrier wavelength
• d = propagation distance between antennas
• c = speed of light (» 3 × 10 8 m/s)
where d and  are in the same units (e.g., meters)
 Line-of-Sight Transmission

• Free space loss for other antennas

– gain of other antennas should be take into account.
Using the relationship between antenna gain and
effective area.
Pt 4  d  d  cd 
2 2 2 2
   2
Pr Gr Gt 2
Ar At f Ar At
• Gt = gain of transmitting antenna
• Gr = gain of receiving antenna
• At = effective area of transmitting antenna
• Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
 Line-of-Sight Transmission

• For any data transmission event, the received signal will

consist of the transmitted signal, modified by the various
distortions imposed by the transmission system, plus
additional unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere
between transmission and reception. These unwanted signals
are referred to as noise.
• Noise is the major limiting factor in communications system
performance.
• Categories of Noise
– Thermal Noise
– Inter-modulation noise
– Crosstalk
– Impulse Noise
 Line-of-Sight Transmission
• Amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth
of 1Hz in any device or conductor is:
N 0  kT W/Hz 
• N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of
bandwidth
• k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 × 10-23 J/K
• T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)
• Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency
• Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz (in
watts):
N  kTB
 Line-of-Sight Transmission

• The Expression Eb/N0

– Consider a signal at a certain bit rate R
– The energy per bit in a signal is Eb=STb, where S is
the signal power and Tb is the time required to send one bit
Eb S / R S
 
N0 N0 kTR
SNR and Eb/N0: SNR depends on the bandwidth.
The noise in a signal with bandwidth BT is N=BTN0. We can
relate Eb/N0 with SNR as:
Eb S / R S BT
 
N0 N0 N R
 Line-of-Sight Transmission

Also we can relate Eb/N0 with channel capacity given by

Shannon’s formula.
C  B log 2 (1  S N )
S
 2C B  1
N
Eb B C B
 ( 2  1)
N0 C

In this equation we defined Spectral efficiency: C/B.

 Fading in Mobile Environment

• Fading – the time variation of received signal

power caused by changes in the transmission
medium or paths.
 Fading in Mobile Environment

• The Effects of Multipath Propagation

– Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different
phases
• If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to
noise declines, making detection more difficult
– Intersymbol interference (ISI)
• One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the
same time as the primary pulse for a subsequent bit
 Fading in Mobile Environment

• Types of fading
– Fast fading
– Slow fading
– Flat fading
– Selective fading
• Fading channel:
– AWGN (additive white Gaussian noise) channel
– Rayleigh fading
– Rician fading
Chapter 4: Signal modulation
techniques
 Outline

4.1 Signal Encoding Criteria

4.2 Digital Data, Analog Signals

4.3 Analog Data, Analog Signals

4.4 Analog Data, Digital Signals

 Signal Encoding Criteria

• Data rate: is the rate in bits per second, that data are
transmitted.
• The duration or length of a bit is the amount of time
it takes for the transmitter to emit the bit; for a data
rate R, the bit duration is 1/R.
• Modulation rate: is the rate at which the signal level
is changed. It is expressed in baud, which means
signal elements per second.
 Signal Encoding Criteria

• BER: is the most common measure of error

performance on a data circuit and is defined as
the probability that a bit is received in error. It
is also called the bit error ratio.
 Digital Data, Analog Signals

• The source data or signals are generally referred to as

baseband signals. Of course, we can send analogue
and digital signals directly over a medium.
• Low-frequency signal is often frequency-translated to
a higher frequency range for efficient transmission.
The process is called modulation. The use of a higher
frequency range reduces antenna size.
 Digital Data, Analog Signals

• In the modulation process, the baseband signals

constitute the modulating signal and the high-
frequency carrier signal is a sinusoidal waveform.
The resulting transmitted signal after modulation is
modulated signal.
• Modulation involves operation on one or more of the
three characteristics of a carrier signal: amplitude,
frequency and phase.
• Accordingly：amplitude-shift keying (ASK),
frequency-shift keying (FSK), and phase-shift
keying (PSK).
– Time domain expression
– Waveform
– Spectrum
– Modulator and demodulator
– Performance
• Time domain expression

 A cos(2f c t ) binary1
ASK e ASK ( t )  
 0 binary0

 A cos(2f1 t   1 ) binary1
BFSK e BFSK ( t )  
 A cos(2f 2 t   2 ) binary0
 A cos2f c t  binary1
BPSK e BPSK t   
 A cos2f c t    binary0
• Waveform
• Spectrum

• Modulator and demodulator

– Coherent Demodulator
 Performance

• Transmission bandwidth performance(BT) of

modulated signal
– ASK, PSK BT=2D
– FSK BT=(fH-fL)+2D

• D = modulation rate
 Differential Phase-Shift Keying

• An alternative form of BPSK is differential PSK (DPSK).

DPSK is a common form of phase modulation that conveys
data by using the data to change rather than set the phase.
• In DPSK a binary '1' may be transmitted by adding 180° to
the current phase and a binary '0' by adding 0° to the current
phase.
• Why and how?
 Analog Data, Analog Signals

• As before, the three basic characteristics of a

signal are used for modulation:

– Amplitude Modulation (AM)

– Angle modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
 Pulse Code Modulation

 Sampling
 Quantization
 PCM encoding
 Sampling

• Let x(t) be a continuous signal which is to be

sampled, and that sampling is performed by
measuring the value of the continuous signal
every T seconds, which is called the sampling
interval.
• The sampling frequency or sampling rate fs is
defined as the number of samples obtained in
one second, or fs = 1/T. The sampling rate is
measured in Hertz or in samples per second.
 Sampling

Sampling theorem: If a signal f(t) is sampled at

regular intervals of time and at a rate higher
than twice the highest signal frequency, then
the samples contain all the information of the
original signal. The function f(t) may be
reconstructed from these samples by the use of
a low-pass filter.
 Quantization

• Quantization refers to approximating the output by

one of a discrete and finite set of values
• Replacing the input by a discrete set is called
discretization, and is done by sampling, the resulting
sampled signal is called a discrete signal (discrete
time), and need not be quantized (it can have
continuous values).
• To produce a digital signal (discrete time and discrete
values), need to samples (discrete time) and quantizes
the resulting sample values (discrete values).
 PCM

• However by quantizing the PAM pulse, the original

signal is now only approximated and cannot be
recovered exactly.
• This effect is known as quantizing error or quantizing
noise.
• The signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise can be
expressed as
SNR dB  20 log 2 n  1.76 dB  6.02n  1.76 dB
• Each additional bit used for quantizing increases SNR
by about 6 dB.
• nonlinear encoding
• companding
 Delta Modulation

• Delta Modulation
– One of the most popular alternatives to PCM to reduce the
complexity.
– An analog input is approximated by a staircase function
that moves up or down by one quantization level (δ) at each
sampling interval (Ts).
– The function moves up or down, and the behavior is binary.
So the output of the delta modulation process can be
represented as a single binary digit for each sample.
 Delta Modulation

•  must be chosen to produce a balance

between two types of errors or noise.
– When the analog waveform is changing very
slowly, there will be quantizing noise. This noise
increases as  is increased.
– When the analog waveform is changing more
rapidly than the staircase can follow, there is slope
overload noise. This noise increases as  is
decreased.
• Two important parameters
– Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
– Sampling rate
Chapter 5: Spread spectrum
 Outline

5.1 Concept of Spread Spectrum

5.2 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum

5.3 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

5.4 Code Division Multiple Access

5.5 Generation of Spreading Sequences

 Spread Spectrum

• The spread spectrum techniques was

developed initially for military and intelligence
requirements.
• The essential idea is to spread the information
signal over a wider bandwidth to make
jamming and interception more difficult.
 Basic Approach

• Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum -- FHSS

– Signal is broadcast over a seemingly random series
of radio frequencies, hopping from frequency to
frequency at fixed intervals.
– A receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with the transmitter, picks up the
message.
– How’s the transmitter and receiver with FH
working?
• FHSS Using MFSK
– MFSK uses M=2L different frequencies
– For FHSS, the MFSK signal is translated to a new
frequency every Tc seconds by modulating the
MFSK signal with the FHSS carrier signal.
– For a data rate of R, the duration of a bit is T=1/R
seconds and the duration of a signal elements is
Ts=LT seconds.
 FHSS using MFSK

• If Tc is greater than or equal to Ts the

spreading modulation is referred to as slow-
frequency-hop spread spectrum
• Otherwise it is known as fast-frequency-hop
spread spectrum.
• Example of Slow FHSS and Fast FHSS.
• The gain in signal-to-noise ratio (the
processing gain) is

Ws
GP   2k
Wd
 DSSS Using BPSK

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum – DSSS

– Each bit in the original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal, using a
spreading code.
– The spreading code spreads the signal across a
wider frequency band in direct proportion to the
number of bits used.
– One technique with DSSS is to combine the digital
information stream with the spreading code bit
stream using an exclusive-OR (XOR).
• DSSS Using BPSK
– To produce the DSSS signal, we multiply the
above by c(t), which is the PN sequence taking on
values of +1 and -1.
eDSSS  As(t )c(t ) cos(2f ct )
– At the receiver, the incoming signal is multiplied
by c(t). Because c(t)×c(t)=1, the original signal is
recovered:
eDSSSc(t )  As(t )c(t ) cos(2f ct )c(t )  eBPSK
• The transmitter and receiver of DSSS using BPSK.
• The difference of waveform of FHSS and DSSS
signal.
• The gain in signal-to-noise ratio (the processing gain)
is:
T Rc Wc
GP   
Tc R Wd
where R  data rate Rc  spreading bit rate
Wd  signal bandwidth
Wc  spread spectrum signal bandwidth
 Code Division Multiple Access

• CDMA is a multiplexing technique used with

spread spectrum.
– Assuming data signal with rate D, break each bit
into k chips according to a fixed pattern that is
specific to each user, called the user’s code.
– The new channel has a chip data rate of kD chips
per second.
• CDMA for DSSS
 Generation of Spreading Sequences

• Spreading code:
– There should be an approximately equal number of
ones and zeros in the spreading code.
– Few or no repeated patterns
– In CDMA application, further requirement of lack
of correlation
• Two general categories of spreading
sequences:
– PN sequences
– Orthogonal codes
 PN Sequences

• PN generator: algorithm and the seed

• PN properties:
– Randomness
– Unpredictability

• Two criteria are used to validate that a

sequence of numbers is random
– Uniform distribution
– Independence
 LFSR implementation

• Linear Feedback Shift Register Implementation: a

circuit consisting of XOR gates and a shift register
implementing the PN generator for spread spectrum
– The LFSR contains n bits.
– There are from 1 to (n-1) XOR gates.
– The presence or absence of a gate corresponds to
the presence or absence of a term in the generator
polynomial (explained subsequently), P(X),
excluding the Xn term.
 LFSR implementation

• Two equivalent ways of characterizing the PN

LFSR:
– A sum of XOR terms
Bn  A0 B0  A1 B1  A2 B2    An1 Bn1

– Generator polynomial

P ( X )  A0 X 0  A1 X 1  A2 X 2    An1 X n1  X n
 Orthogonal Code

• Orthogonal Code: a ser of sequences in which

all pairwise cross correlations are zero.
• Walsh codes: the most common orthogonal
codes used in CDMA applications.
– A set of Walsh codes of length n consists of the n
rows of an n×n Walsh matrix.
– The matrix is defined recursively as:
 Wn Wn 
W1  0 W2 n   
 Wn Wn 
Chapter 6: Coding and Error
control
 Outline

6.1 Error Detection

6.2 Block Error Correction Codes

6.3 Convolutional Code

 Coding and Error Control

• Three approaches are in common use for

coping with data transmission error:
– Error detection codes: simply detects the presence
of an error
– Error correction codes, also called forward error
correction (FEC) code: not just to detect but
correct errors
– Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols:
receiver discards a block of data in which an error
is detected and the transmitter retransmits that
block of data
 Error Detection

• Error detection principles – transmitter:

– For a given frame of bits, additional bits that
constitute an error-detecting code are added
– This code is calculated as a function of the other
transmitted bits
– For a data block of k bits, the error detection
algorithm yields an error detection code of n-k bits,
where (n-k)<k
– The error detection code (also check bits), is
appended to the data block to produce a frame of n
bits which is then transmitted
 Error Detection

• Error detection principles –receiver:

– Separates the incoming frame into the k bits of
data and (n-k) bits of the error detection code.
– Performs the same error detection calculation on
the data bits and compares this value with the
value of the incoming error detection code.
– A detected error occurs if and only if there is a
mismatch
 Parity Check

• Parity check: the simplest error detection

scheme
– Append a parity bit to the end of a block of data
– A typical example is character transmission, in
which a parity bit is attached to each 7-bit charater.
– The value of this bit is selected so that the
character has an even number of 1s (even parity)
or an odd number of 1s (odd parity)
 Cyclic Redundancy Check

• Cyclic redundancy check: one of most

common, most powerful error detecting codes
– Given a k-bit block of bits, the transmitter
generates an n-k bits sequence, known as a frame
check sequence (FCS)
– The resulting frame consisting of n bits is exactly
divisible by some predetermined number
– The receiver then divides the incoming frame by
that number. If there is no remainder, assumes
there was no error.
• frame check sequence (FCS)
 Digital Logic

• The CRC process can be represented by a dividing

circuit consisting of XOR gates and a shift register.
• A general architecture of the shift register
implementation of a CRC for the polynomial

n k
P ( X )   Ai X i
i 0

where A0  An k  1
all other Ai equal either 0 or 1.
 Block Error Correction Codes
• Error Correction Codes: Correct errors in an
incoming transmission on the basis of the bits in that
transmission
– Transmitter
• Forward error correction (FEC) encoder maps each k-bit
block into an n-bit block codeword, which is transmitted
after modulation
• During transmission the signal is subject to noise, which
may produce bit errors in the signal.
– Receiver
• Incoming signal is demodulated to produce a bit string
which may contain errors
• Block passed through an FEC decoder
 Block Code Principles

• Hamming distance:
– Hamming distance d(v1,v2) between two n-bit
sequences v1 and v2 is the number of bits in which
v1 and v2 disagree.
– If v1=011011, and v2=110001, then d(v1,v2) =3.
– If v1=100011011, and v2=101011001, then d(v1,v2)
=2.
 Block Code Principles

• In general, an (n, k) block code encodes k data bits

into n-bit codewords
• With an (n,k) block code, there are 2k valid
codewords out of a total of 2n possible codewords.
The ratio of redundant bits to data bits, (n-k)/k is
called the redundancy of the code.
• The ratio of data bits to total bits, k/n is called the
code rate.
• The code rate is a measure of how much additional
bandwidth is required to carry data at the same data
as without the code.
 Block Interleaving

• Block interleaving is a common technique used

with block codes in wireless systems.
• The advantages: a burst error that affects a
sequence of bits is spread out over a number of
separate blocks at the receiver so that the
correction is possible.
 Convolutional Code Principles

• An (n, k) block code process data in blocks of k bits

at a time, producing a block a n bits as output for
every block of k bits as input.
• It may not be convenient if data are transmitted and
received in a more or less continuous stream,
particularly with large n.
• Convolution code generates redundant bits
continuously so that error checking and correcting are
carried out continuously.
• Constraint factor
 EXAM

• Time: 09 Jun, 14:30-16:30

• Short Answer and drawing

• Calculation