Dr. Abel A.

Bartley

The Making of
Industrial Society

1
Patterns of Industrialization

 Technological developments made possible

production by machine rather than by hand
 Inanimate sources of energy—coal, petroleum—
harnessed
 Factory dominated industrial production
 Encouraged new divisions of labor, belt-driven
assembly lines, mass production
 Expense of equipment led to formation of large
businesses

2
Coal and Colonies

 Coal in Great Britain played crucial role

 Previous use of wood led to wood shortages
 Large coal deposits in easy reach of water transport,
centers of commerce, pools of labor
 Richness of coal deposits made Britain’s
experience unique

3
Ecological Relief

 Americas supplied Europeans with growing

volume of raw materials
 Plantation economies provided sugar and cotton;
created markets for manufactured imports
 Consumer demand encouraged transformation of
British cotton industry

4
Mechanization of the Cotton Industry

 Flying shuttle (1733), John Kay

 Sped up weaving output; stimulated demand for thread
 The “mule” (1779), Samuel Compton
 Could produce 100 times more thread than a manual
wheel
 Power loom (1785), Edmund Cartwright
 Supplanted hand weavers in cotton industry by 1820s

5
Steam Power

 Development of general-purpose steam engine,

1765, by James Watt
 Coal-fired
 Multiple uses
 Horsepower to measure energy generated
 Especially prominent in textile industry

6
Iron and Steel

 1709, British smelters began to use coke rather

than charcoal
 Iron production skyrocketed
 Iron fittings and parts for stronger machinery
 Nineteenth century was age of steel
 1856: Henry Bessemer built refined blast furnace,
Bessemer converter
 Made production of steel faster and cheaper

7
Transportation

 Railroads
 1815: first steam-powered locomotive
 Rocket (1829), 28 mph
 Steamships
 Dense transportation networks developed
 13,000 miles of railroads laid between 1830 and 1870
 Rapid and inexpensive transportation encouraged
industrialization

8
The Factory System

 Early modern Europe had adopted “putting-out”

system
 Individuals worked at home; employers avoided wage
restrictions of medieval guilds
 Rising prices caused factories to replace both
guilds and putting-out system
 Machines too large, expensive for home use
 Large buildings could house specialized laborers
 Urbanization guaranteed supply of cheap labor

9
Working Conditions
and Industrial Protest
 Dramatic shift from rural work rhythms
 Six days a week, fourteen hours a day
 Immediate supervision, punishments
 “Luddite” protest against machines, 1811–1816
 Masked Luddites destroyed machinery, enjoyed
popular support
 Movement died out after 14 Luddites hung in 1813

10
The Early Spread of Industrialization

 By mid-nineteenth century, industrialization had

spread to France, Germany, Belgium, U.S.
 French revolution and Napoleonic wars set stage
 Internal trade barriers abolished
 Dismantling of guilds that discouraged innovation and
restricted movement of labor
 German industrialization proceeded more slowly
 But after 1871, Bismarck sponsored rapid
industrialization

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Industrial Europe ca. 1850

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Industrialization in North America

 Began in 1820s in New England with cotton

textile industry
 1870s, heavy iron and steel industries emerged in
Pennsylvania, Alabama
 By 1900, United States an economic powerhouse,
industrialization spilling over into Canada
 Industry stimulated by railroad construction

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Mass Production

 Eli Whitney (United States, 1765–1825)

 Invention of cotton gin (1793)
 Also technique of using machine tools to make
interchangeable parts for firearms
 Mass production rapidly became hallmark of
industrial societies
 Henry Ford, 1913, developed assembly-line
approach
 Completed automobile chassis every 93 minutes
 Previously: 728 minutes
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Big Business

 Large factories required start-up capital

 Corporations formed to share risk, maximize
profits
 Britain and France laid foundations for modern
corporation, 1850–1860s

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Monopolies, Trusts, and Cartels

 Large corporations formed blocs to drive out

competition, keep prices high
 John D. Rockefeller controlled almost all oil drilling,
processing, refining, marketing in U.S.
 German firm IG Farben controlled as much as 90% of
chemical production
 Governments often slow to control monopolies

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Industrial Demographics

 Technological innovation
 Improved agricultural tools
 Cheap manufactured goods
 Especially textiles
 Travel and transportation

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Population Growth (millions)

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The Demographic Transition

 Industrializing lands experienced marked decline

in both fertility and mortality
 Better diets
 Improved disease control
 Smallpox vaccine (1797)
 At first, mortality fell faster than fertility
 Over time, declining birthrates led to lower
population growth, relative demographic stability

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Birth Control

 Ancient and medieval methods: unreliable,

unrealistic, often dangerous to health
 Male condom was first efficient means of
contraception without negative side effects
 Made from animal intestines in seventeenth century,
latex in nineteenth century
 Raising offspring cost more in industrial societies
 Children also more likely to survive into
adulthood
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The Urban Environment

 Urbanization proceeded dramatically

 1800: about 20% of British population lived in towns
with population of 10,000 or more
 1900: 75% lived in urban environments
 Pattern repeated in rest of industrialized world
 Intensified industrial pollution
 City centers became overcrowded, unsanitary
 Income determined degree of comfort, security

21
Transcontinental Migration

 Nineteenth to early twentieth century, rapid

population growth drove Europeans to Americas
 50 million crossed Atlantic
 British migrants to avoid urban slums, Irish to avoid
potato famines of 1840s, Jews to abandon tsarist
persecution
 Many entered workforce of United States
 Aided rapid U.S. industrialization

22
New Social Classes

 Economic factors resulted in decline of slavery

 Capitalist wealth brought new status to
non-aristocratic families
 New urban classes of professionals
 Blue-collar factory workers
 Urban environment also created new types of
diversions
 Sporting events

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Women at Home and Work

 Agriculture and domestic manufacturing had

easily accommodated women
 Industrialization changed terms of work
 Working-class women were expected to work
until marriage, often after marriage as well
 Domestic service
 Labor-saving devices replaced women’s industrial jobs
 Middle-class women confined to domestic sphere
 Expected to conform to new models of behavior
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Child Labor

 Easily exploited, abused

 1840s, British Parliament began to pass child
labor laws
 Moral concerns removed children from labor pool
 Also, need for educated workforce

25
The Socialist Challenge

 Socialism first used in context of utopian

socialists Charles Fourier (1772–1837) and
Robert Owen (1771–1858)
 Opposed competition of market system
 Attempted to create small model communities
 Inspirational for larger social units

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Karl Marx (1818–1883) and
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895)
 Two major classes:
 Capitalists, who control means of production
 Proletariat, wageworkers who sell labor
 Exploitative nature of capitalist system
 Religion: “opiate of the masses”
 The Communist Manifesto
 Argued for an overthrow of capitalists in favor of a
“dictatorship of the proletariat”

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Social Reform and Trade Unions

 Socialism had major impact on nineteenth-

century reformers
 Addressed issues of medical insurance, unemployment
compensation, retirement benefits
 Trade unions formed for collective bargaining
 Strikes to address workers’ concerns

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Global Effects of Industrialization

 Geographic division of labor

 Some peoples produced raw materials
 Others processed and consumed them
 Uneven economic development
 Developing export dependencies of Latin
America, sub-Saharan Africa, south and southeast
Asia
 Low wages, small domestic markets

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