PENGUKURAN SKALA

SIKAP/SKALA DAN SKOR

PENGUKURAN
dr. Meiwita P. Budiharsana, MPA., Ph.D
Departemen Biostatistik dan Ilmu Kependudukan
Measurement
“[M]easurement is the assignment of numerals to aspects of
objects or events according to rule[s]” (Stevens, 1959, p. 24).

Public health the objects most often studied are people,

communities, and systems.
• People, illnesses, health behaviors, and attitudes
• Communities, size, location (urban or rural), and cultural norms
• Systems, system access (for example, access to care), policies, cost, and quality
 Conceptualization Of The Measurement
Process

Figure 1. Conceptualization Of The Measurement Process

Figure 1. is a visual representation of the conversion of concepts to numbers.

The model shows that the conversion occurs through a process of measurement and that
error is associated with this process
 Scales of Measurement (1)
Categorical A categorical variable (a nominal variable) has two or more
categories, without intrinsic ordering to the categories

The categories of a nominal scale must be mutually exclusive.

For example, gender; hair color

Ordinal Categories have a meaningful order that is hierarchical in

nature

For example, the economic status (low, medium and high);

educational experience
Scales of Measurement (2)
Variables measured on the interval scale have a meaningful
Interval order: higher levels have more of the attribute

The interval scale does not have a true zero point, a point at
which there is nothing left of the attribute. For example,
temperature

Ratio The ratio scale has all the characteristics of the interval scale
except for the arbitrary zero point

The true zero point permits the meaningful expression of ratios.

For example, height and weight
 Levels of Measurement and Statistics
Nominal
• The number of possible statistical tests would be limited
• Frequencies and percentages, significance tests would be limited to the chi-square or a similar
statistic
Ordinal
• Median, percentiles and a rank-order correlation
• Nonparametric statistics
Interval
• Arithmetic mean, a standard deviation, and a product moment correlation
• Parametric tests, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA) possible
Ratio
• all statistical tests are possible, including calculation of the geometric and harmonic mean,
percentage of variation, regression and structured equation modeling
 TYPES OF MEASURES

Self-report Observations Biobehavioral Electronic

measures monitors

 Interviews  Diaries
 Questionnaires  Scales ex: Likert
 Journals  Indexes

• The Likert scale, also called a summated rating scale,

• Scale for measuring behaviors, attitudes, and feelings.
• The Likert scale builds on the concept of the one-item response scale.
Ordinal or Interval?
Sometimes you have variables that are “in between” ordinal and
interval, for example, a five-point Likert Scale with values “strongly
agree”, “agree”, “neutral”, “disagree” and “strongly disagree”.

If we can not be sure that the intervals between each of these five values are
the same, then we would not be able to say that this is an interval variable, but
we would say that it is an ordinal variable.
Assume the variable is interval, we will assume that the intervals are
equally spaced.
 Validity and Reliability
What’s the Difference?
Validity Reliability
It is possible for a measurement to be
reliable but invalid; however, if a
The consistency, stability and The extent to which any
measurement is unreliable, then it cannot be
repeatability of results i.e. the measuring instrument
valid
result of a researcher is measures what it is intended
considered reliable if consistent to measure
results have been obtained in (Thatcher, 2010, p.125)

identical situations but different

circumstances (Twycross and Shields, 2004, p.36)
9
 Types of Validity
Criterion-related Content validity
validity
• Predictive Validity • Face validity
• Purpose is to use an • The extent to which an
instrument to estimate empirical measurement
some important form of reflects a specific domain
behaviour that is external of content
to the measuring • Arithmetic operations, the
instrument itself test problem will be
content valid if the
researcher focuses on
addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division
Construct validity
• The extent to which a
particular measure relates
to other measures
consistent with
theoretically derived
hypotheses concerning the
concepts that are being
measured
 Types of Reliability
Stability
• When a researcher obtains
the same result in repeated
administrations or when the
same test tools are used on the
same sample size more than
once
• When there is a reliability co-
efficient that provides an
indication of how reliable the
tool is.
Homogeneity
• This is a measure of the
Internal Consistency
of the scales.
• Cronbach’s alpha is
used to measure the reliability of
a tool.
• Reliability is considered
acceptable for group
comparison when alpha is
0.50 or above.
Equivalence
• Level of agreement among
researchers using the same
data collection tool.
• The ratings of two or more
researchers are compared by
calculating a correlation co-
efficient.
Cronbach’s Alpha

• Cronbach’s Alpha examines the extent to which a set of scale

level variables are consistently scored
• Reliability is considered acceptable for group comparison
when alpha is 0.50 or above.
• Alpha indicated the degree of convergence between different
items (inter-item homogenity)
 Factor Analysis
A technique that is used to reduce a large number of variables into fewer numbers of
factors.

This technique extracts maximum common variance from all variables and puts them
into a common score

Factor analysis is part of General Linear Model (GLM) and this method also
assumes several assumptions: there is linear relationship, there is no multicollinearity

Multicollinearity - predictors that are highly related to each other and both
predictive of your outcome, can cause problems in estimating the regression
coefficients
Types of Factor Analysis
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
• Assumes that any indicator or variable may be associated with any
factor. This is the most common factor analysis used by researchers and it is
not based on any prior theory.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
• Used to determine the factor and factor loading of measured variables,
• Confirm what is expected on the basic or pre-established theory.
• CFA assumes that each factor is associated with a specified subset of
measured variables
 Types of factoring
Exploratory factor analysis is often confused with principal
component analysis (PCA), a similar statistical procedure.

Significant differences between the two: EFA and PCA will provide
somewhat different results when applied to the same data

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a dimension-reduction tool that can be

used to reduce a large set of variables to a small set that still contains most
of the information in the large set.
Principal Component Analysis
Principal component analysis is an approach to factor analysis that considers
the total variance in the data, which is unlike common factor analysis, and
transforms the original variables into a smaller set of linear combinations

Principal component analysis is recommended when the researcher’s primary

concern is to determine the minimum number of factors that will account for the
maximum variance in the data

PCA to identify the patterns in the data and to direct the data by highlighting
their similarities and differences
Testing Assumptions of Linear Regression

You need to check the assumptions of normality, linearity,

homoscedasticity, and absence of multicollinearity. Homosced-what?
Collinearity?

Homoscedasticity refers to whether these residuals are equally

distributed, or whether they tend to bunch together at some values, and
at other values, spread far apart.

If the variance of the residuals is non-constant then the residual variance

is said to be heteroscedastic.
Homoscedasticity vs Heteroscedasticity
Homoscedasticity Heteroscedasticity
References
1. THATCHER, R. (2010). Validity and reliability of quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG).
Journal of Neurotherapy, 14, pp. 122-152.
2. TWYCROSS, A. & SHIELDS, L. (2004). Validity and reliability - What's it all about? Part 2
Reliability in quantitative studies. Paediatric Nursing, 16 (10) p. 36 available at:
ttps://www.lbs.edu.ng/sites/faculty_research/crle/Downloads/Notes%20on%20Reliability%20a
nd%20Validity%20by%20Temilade%20Adefioye.pdf
3. https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/spss/output/factor-analysis/
4. http://www.statisticssolutions.com
5. Costello, Anna B, Jason W. Osborne. 2005. Best Practice in Exploratory Factor Analysis: Four
Recommendations for Getting the Most From Your Analysis. Practical Assessment Research
Evaluation, Vol 10, No.7.
6. What is the Difference Between Categorical, Ordinal and Interval Variables?. UCLA: Institute for
Digital Research and Education. https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/other/mult-pkg/whatstat/what-is-the-
difference-between-categorical-ordinal-and-interval-variables/. (Accessed 14 February 2018)
7. Di Iorio, Colleen Konicki . 2005. MEASUREMENT IN HEALTH BEHAVIOR Methods for Research and
Education. A Wiley Inprint. www.josseybass.com