Dr.

Vaneeta Aggarwal
 Perception

“ The study of perception is concerned with

identifying the process through which we
interpret and organize sensory information to
produce our conscious experience of objects
and object relationship.”

“ Perception is the process of receiving information

about and making sense of the world around us.
It involves deciding which information to notice,
how to categorize this information and how to
interpret it within the framework of existing
knowledge. 4
 A process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment.

 What we perceive can be far different from

the reality
 Perception is the process by which we
attach meaning to the world around us.

 Our world consist of people, experiences

and objects that influences us.
 To a maple To an itinsect,
tree, is a it’s a meal.
To a street cleaner it’s To a photographer, it is
source of life. To Canadian,
a still life. it’s a
rubbish.
nation symbol.
 Perceiver
Certain factors
operate to shape
and sometimes
distort perception. Target/object

Context of situation
 SELECTION

SENSATION

ORGANIZATION

INTERPRETATION
1. Sensation 3. Organization
› An individual’s ability to › The process of placing
detect stimuli in the selected perceptual
immediate environment. stimuli into a framework .
2. Selection 4. Interpretation
› The process a person uses › The stage of the
to eliminate some of the perceptual process at
stimuli that have been which stimuli are
sensed and to retain others interpreted and given
for further processing. meaning.

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 Perceptual Process Selecting Stimuli
External factors : Nature,
Receiving Stimuli Location,Size,contrast,
(External & Internal) Movement,repetition,similarity
Internal factors : Learning,
needs,age,Interest,

Organizing
Interpreting Figure Background ,
Attribution ,Stereotyping, Perceptual Grouping
Halo Effect, Projection ( similarity, proximity,
closure, continuity)

Response
Covert: Attitudes ,
Motivation,
Feeling
Overt: Behavior

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 We become aware of the world around
us through our senses:

1. Sight
2. Smell
3. Touch
4. Sound
5. Taste
 Perception is unique to every individual.
 No two person view the world as exactly
same.
 No one can perceive 100% of all the
things at all times.
 Life is a process of selecting information/data
 We are confronted with millions of pieces of stimuli each day (~1,500
advertisements alone)
Factors That Influence Our Selection
 Nature
 Location
 Colour
 Size
 Contrast
 Movement
 Repetition
 Novelty and Familiarity
 Learning
 Psychological needs
 Age difference
 Interest
 See this photo of Albert Einstein?

Get out of your seat and look at it from ten

feet away,

It will morph into Marilyn Monroe

 Organization is the next stage in the
organisation.
 In this stage mentally arrange stimuli
(information) so we can understand and
make sense out of stimuli.
Viewers will perceive an object (figure) and a surface (ground) even in shapes are
grouped together.
Viewers will perceive an object (figure) and a surface (ground) even in shapes are
grouped together.
Viewers will perceive an object (figure) and a surface (ground) even in shapes are
grouped together.
Viewers will perceive an object (figure) and a surface (ground) even in shapes are
grouped together.

By following the Figure-Ground Law in the Feathers & Fur logo,

designed for a pet store from Lumo, the observer can recognize
a parrot and a dog’s face into the mark.
 What does Gestalt mean?

Gestalt , loosely translated into English, means “shape” or “form”

Are the letters straight or tilted?
What do you see in this picture?
 Octavio Ocampo

In an image, we can study the relationship between its elements, separately or

together, to develop the message we want to transmit to the receiver.
 Octavio Ocampo

“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts”

This phrase is often used when explaining Gestalt principles.
 Octavio Ocampo

Gestalt Principles are about perception and reality.

 X
What do you see in this picture?
 Have you seen the letter X or four lines?
Surely everyone has seen the same: the letter X

Because we tend to see shapes as simple as possible

Gestalt principles help us understand the way we see.

The close relationship between Gestalt Principles & Design
Why are Gestalt Laws so important?

 Gestalt Principles can really help in

focusing attention and organizing contents
in an effective way.
The main Gestalt Laws are:

Law of Proximity
Law of Similarity.
Law of Figure and Ground.
Law of Continuity
Law of Closure
Law of Simplicity
When the dots are placed close to each other in groups, we
tend to perceive 3 columns rather than a whole group of dots.
This is Mystery Island's logo, created by Gert van Duinen. In an easy and brilliant
way the designer uses the proximity law to create a shape of an island and its
reflection on the sea. This is the perfect combination of the brand name and the
customer activity, dance music producer. The lines creating the island are clearly
recognizable as equalizer lines.
Again, in the Foodmobile logo (Designer: ru_ferret) we can see a group of single
objects, representing types of food (bread, fish, vegetables are clearly
recognizable) which, grouped for proximity, create a car shape.
Objects are viewed in vertical rows
because of their similar attributes.
For example, these dots arranged in
a line are considered related
elements.
In the image above we perceive a long
“line” created from the lighter dots. On the
other hand, the “line” created from the
darker dots is perceived as interrupted.
An extremely famous logo based on closure is the WWF Panda
50
The IBM logo, composed by eight solid lines separated by empty space, is
based on closure law. The three letters are not really there. Our brain
perceives them by closing the letters shape.
 WHICH VERTICAL LINE IS BIGGER IN THE
NEXT SLIDE?
 (a) LEFT PICTURE
 (B) RIGHT PICTURE
WHICH DIAGONAL LINES
A-B AND B-C ARE BIGGER
IN THE NEXT SLIDE?
 Org
aniz
atio
nal
Beh
avio
r/
Per
cep
61 tion
 This is the third stage in perception
process.
 In this we attach meaning to the stimuli.
 Our interpretations are subjective and
based on our values, need, beliefs,
experiences expectations, self concept
and others personal factors.
 Selective Perception :

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their

interests, background, experience and attitudes.

 Halo Effect :

Drawing a general impressions about an individual on the basis of a

single characteristics.

63
 The mind likes consistency, simplicity, & balance. Any information
that could “disrupt the peace” is seen as dangerous. Ergo, the brain
tries to restore balance
 Selective Exposure
› We attend to messages that are in accord with our already-held
attitudes and avoid dissonance from other ideas
 Selective Retention
› We remember what is consistent with pre-existing attitudes and
interests
 Selective Perception
› We mentally recast messages so that they are in line with our
beliefs and attitudes
 Outright Denial: Denying factory workers
can be intelligent
 Modification mechanism : intelligent but
lack initiative
 Modification of data received: not too
intelligent
 Change in perception mechanism:
good at work
 We select the first (positive or negative) “obvious” or “dominant”
characteristic of a person
› Physical appearance, weight, personality, wealth, clothing,
regional accent, race, large nose, glasses, nice shoes, etc.

 We then assign “accompanying” positive or negative traits to that

person (that they have not earned)
› Halo--Attractive People: smart, happy, rich, honest
› Devil--Unattractive People: dumb, poor, dishonest

 Problem: We unfairly punish some while rewarding others simply due

to one dominant trait we happen to like
 Contrast Effect :

Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are effected by

comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank

higher or lower on the same characteristics.

 Projection :

Attributing one's own characteristics to other people.

 Stereotyping :

Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to

which that persons belongs.

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 Our behavior is based on our perception
of reality than reality itself.

 So,world as perceived is the world that is

behaviorally important
 Basically, the theory suggests that when we
observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt
to determine whether it was internally or
externally caused.
 Distinctiveness: shows different
behaviors in different situations.

. Consensus: response is the

same as others to same
DETERMINANTS situation

Consistency: responds in the

same way over time
 Errors or biases distort attributions

 While judging behavior of other people we

underestimate the effect of external factors for
behavior and overestimate the influence of
internal factors (Fundamental attribution error)

 Eg. Sales manager is more likely to attribute poor

performance of sales agents to their laziness
rather than the innovative product line launched
by the competitor.
 SELF SERVING BIAS-

Individuals and companies have a

tendency to attribute their own success
to internal factors like ability or effort but
putting blame of failure on external
factors like luck etc.
Selective Perception
 People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience,
and attitudes.
Halo Effect
 Drawing a general impression about an
individual on the basis of a single
characteristic

Contrast Effects
 Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that
are affected by comparisons with other
people recently encountered who rank
higher or lower on the same characteristics
Projection
 Attributing one’s own characteristics to other
people.

Stereotyping
 Judging someone on the basis of one’s
perception of the group to which that person
belongs
 IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTION

 if the manager has good perception in

any department of the organization
the department team will have SAFE SOLU
TION with RISKY IDEAS.
 to find innovative solutions for the problem.
 to leverage creativity and motivate
the higher plateau of thinking.
 With the help of perception, habits and
attitudes will get changed.
 with the help of perception, we can find
solutions to the most difficult problems.
 EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW

 Perception can help the manager to recruit

the best fit.
 Perceptual biases can affect accuracy of
interviewers’ judgments of applicants
 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION:

 Perception can help the manager to

make the most effective performance
appraisal of the employee.
 Appraisals can be subjective
perceptions of performance.
 PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS:-

 Perception can help the manager to

make the most effective judgment on
expectation.
 The lower or higher performance of
employees reflects preconceived leader
expectations about employee
capabilities
 Employee Effort

-
Perception can help the manager to make
the right judgement of the
employee's effort.

– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective

judgment subject to perceptual distortion and
bias.
Problem
A perceived discrepancy
between the current state of
affairs and a desired state. Perception
of the
decision
Decisions maker
Choices made from among
alternatives developed from
data perceived as relevant.

Outcomes
 Assumptions of the Rational
Decision-Making Model
Model Assumptions
Rational Decision- • Problem clarity
Making Model
• Known options
Describes how • Clear preferences
individuals should
• Constant
behave in order to preferences
maximize some
• No time or cost
outcome. constraints
• Maximum payoff
 Steps in the Rational
Decision-Making Model
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the
criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
 How Are Decisions Actually
Made in Organizations

Bounded Rationality
Individuals make decisions by constructing
simplified models that extract the essential
features from problems without capturing
all their complexity.
• How/Why problems are identified
– Visibility over importance of problem
• Attention-catching, high profile problems
• Desire to “solve problems”
– Self-interest (if problem concerns decision
maker)
• Alternative Development
– Satisficing: seeking the first alternative that
solves problem.
– Engaging in incremental rather than unique
problem solving through successive limited
comparison of alternatives to the current
alternative in effect.
 INTUITION
• Intuitive Decision Making
– An unconscious process created out of
distilled experience.
• Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making
– A high level of uncertainty exists
– There is little precedent to draw on
– Variables are less scientifically predictable
– “Facts” are limited
– Facts don’t clearly point the way
– Analytical data are of little use
– Several plausible alternative solutions exist
– Time is limited and pressing for the right
decision
 Individual Differences in
Decision Making
 Personality
 Aspects of conscientiousness and escalation of
commitment.
 Self Esteem High self serving bias
 Gender
 Women tend to analyze decisions more than men.
 Overconfidence Bias
 Believing too much in our own decision competencies. Those
individuals whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are
weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and
ability.
 Confirmation Bias
 Using only the facts that support our decision. It represents specific
case of selective perception. We seek out information that reaffirms
our past choices, and we discount information that contradicts
them.
 Availability Bias
 Using information that is most readily at hand. Events that evoke
emotions, that have occurred more recently tend to be more
available in our memory. That’s why managers when doing annual
performance appraisals tend to give more weight to recent
employee behaviors than to behaviors of 6 or 9 months ago.
 Escalation of Commitment
› Increasing commitment to a previous decision in spite of
negative information. Many an organization has suffered
large losses because a manager was determined to prove
his original decision was right by continuing to commit
resources to what was a lost cause from the beginning.
 Randomness Error
› Trying to create meaning out of random events by falling
prey to a false sense of control or superstitions. It can be
deliberating when it affects daily judgments or biases major
decisions.
 Hindsight Bias
› Falsely believing to have accurately predicted the outcome
of an event, after that outcome is actually known. It reduces
our ability from the past. It permits us to think that we are
better at making predictions than we really are and can
result in our being more confident about the accuracy of
future decisions than we have a right to be.
 Intuitive Decision Making
› An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.
 Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making
› A high level of uncertainty exists
› There is little precedent to draw on
› Variables are less scientifically predictable
› “Facts” are limited
› Facts don’t clearly point the way
› Analytical data are of little use
› Several plausible alternative solutions exist
› Time is limited and pressing for the right decision
 Decision making in practice is characterized by bounded
rationality, common biases and errors and the use of intuition.
 Personality- Personality does influence decision making.
Achievement-oriented people hate to fail so they escalate their
commitment hoping to forecast what they see at best for the
organization failures. Dutiful people are more inclined to do what
they see as best for the organization. People with high self-
esteem appear to be more susceptible to self-serving bias, that is
they blame others for their failure while taking credit for
successes.
Self Esteem High self serving bias
 Gender - In terms of decision making, it means over thinking
problems. Women tend to analyze decisions more than men.
They are more likely to overanalyze problems before making a
decisions and to rehash a decision a decision once it has been
made. This lead to more careful consideration of problems and
choices.
 Performance Evaluation
 Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions. Managers are
strongly influenced in their decision making by the criteria on which
they are evaluated.
 Reward Systems
 Decision makers make action choices that are favored by the
organization. For ex. If the organization rewards risk aversion, managers
are more likely to make conservative decisions.
 Formal Regulations
 Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative choices of
decision makers. All but the smallest of organization create rules and
policies to program decisions which are intended to get individuals to
act in the intended manner. So decision maker choice is limited.
 System-imposed Time Constraints
 Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
 Historical Precedents
 Past decisions influence current decisions.
1. Analyze the situation and adjust your decision making style to fit the
situation.
2. Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact.
3. Combine rational analysis with intuition to increase decision-making
effectiveness.
4. Don’t assume that your specific decision style is appropriate to
every situation.
5. Enhance personal creativity by looking for novel solutions or seeing
problems in new ways, and using analogies.
 Focus on goals.
› Clear goals make decision making easier and help to eliminate
options inconsistent with your interests.
 Look for information that disconfirms beliefs.
› Overtly considering ways we could be wrong challenges our
tendencies to think we’re smarter than we actually are.
 Don’t try to create meaning out of random events.
› Don’t attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.
 Increase your options.
› The number and diversity of alternatives generated increases the
chance of finding an outstanding one.

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 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGQ
mdoK_ZfY&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=USs5BVOAN4s