BGCP 312: Irrigation Technology

Lecturer: Miss. Nafula Racheal

School of Natural Sciences and Department of Agricultural Sciences
Bugema University
nafula.racheal@yahoo.com
0783-462150

1
 Course Outline
 Introduction to Irrigation
– Definition of and understanding of irrigation
– Importance and potential of irrigation in Uganda and water
resource utilisation
– Irrigation principles
 Soil- Plant -Water Relationships
– Basic Soil physical properties ( texture, structure, porosity)
and their relationship to soil moisture
– Methods of expression of soil moisture content
– Soil moisture constants
– Plant rooting depths, effective root zone, crop
characteristics
– Total Available Moisture (TAM), depletion factor, Readily
Available Moisture (RAM) and irrigation requirement
– Crop response to water stress
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 Course Outline
 Evapo-transpiration (ET)

– Reference, Crop and Actual Evapotranspiration(ET)

definitions
– Factors affecting ET process
– Direct ET measurement methods
– Use of equations for ET determination
 Reliable rainfall, effective rainfall, groundwater
contribution and irrigation requirements.
– Historical rainfall data, reliable and effective rainfall
– Groundwater contribution through capillary rise to the root
zone
– Irrigation requirements

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 Course Outline
 Irrigation scheduling, irrigation efficiency salinity and
leaching
– Irrigation scheduling principles

– Different irrigation efficiencies and their effect and

importance in design and management

– Salinity problems and their management (Leaching )in

irrigated agriculture

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 Course Outline 2
 Surface irrigation water application method design and
management

– Furrow, border and basin irrigation water application

method design and management

 Basic pipe hydraulics and Sprinkler irrigation water

application method design and management

– Friction head loss in pipe flow hydraulics, head loss in

pipes with multiple openings
– Components of sprinkler irrigation system, selection of
appropriate sprinkler head
– Design of lateral ,sub main and main pipe lines

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 Course Outline 2
Drip irrigation water application method design
and management
– Components of drip irrigation system, selection of
appropriate drip lines
– Design of lateral, manifold, sub main and main
pipe

Pumps and power unit

– Classification of pumps
– Centrifugal pumps, Pump efficiency, water
horsepower, brake horse power,
– Selection of pump and power unit
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 Suggested reading List
 Andreas P. S., A. S. Joop, M. A. R. Paul and V.H. Sven,
1991.Irrigation Manual, Volume I and II. UNDP/FAO
ZIM/85/004 Project.

 Andreas P. S. and Karen Frenken, 2002. Irrigation

Manual: Planning, Development Monitoring and
Evaluation of Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer
Participation, FAO, Harare

 Brouwer C. and M. Heibloem, 1985. Introduction to

irrigation. Irrigation Water management Training manual
no. 1. FAO.

 Brouwer C. and M. Heibloem, 1986. Irrigation Water

Needs. Irrigation Water management Training manual no.
3. FAO. 7
 Suggested reading List
 Brouwer C. and M. Heibloem, 1986. Irrigation Methods.
Irrigation Water management Training manual no. 5. FAO.

 Brouwer C., J. P. Hoevenaars, B. E. Van Bosch, N. Hatcho and

M. Heibloem, 1992. Scheme Irrigation Water Needs and
Supply. Irrigation Water management Training manual no. 6.
FAO.

 Brouwer C., J. P. Hoevenaars, B. E. Van Bosch and N. Hatcho,

1992. Canals. Irrigation Water management Training manual
no. 7. FAO..

 Other FAO publications (internet) on irrigation and drainage

 Hansen V. E., O. W. Israelsen and G. E. Stringham, 1962.

Irrigation Principles and Practices. John Wiley and sons,
Inc. 8
 Suggested reading List
 James, L.G. (1988). Principles of Farm Irrigation System
Design. John Wiley, New York.

 Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, American

Society of Civil Engineers.

 Michael, A. M., 1978. Irrigation Theory and Practice. Vikas

Publishing House PVT, New Delhi.
 Punmia B. C. and B. B. L. Pande, 1987. Irrigation and
WaterPower Engineering. N.C. Jain, Delhi.
 Schwab, O. G., K. R. Frevert, T. W. Edmister and K. K.
Barnes, 1981. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering.
John Wiley & Sons, New York
 Etc..
 Irrigation Manual: Planning, Development Monitoring and
Evaluation of Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer Participation
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Course Goals and Expectations
This course has two specific goals:
 To introduce students to basic concepts of irrigation planning
,design and management (soil, water, plants, their interactions)

 To develop analytical skills relevant to the areas mentioned

above

Expectations
– Ability to design irrigation systems
– Ability to determine crop water requirements
– Ability to determine soil moisture storage
– High grades

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 1.0 Introduction to Irrigation
Crops need soil, water, air and energy (solar
radiation) to grow.

Soil: anchors the plants, stores the water and

nutrients for plant up take through their roots.

The solar radiation provides the energy necessary

for plant growth and ET.

The air provides oxygen to the plants

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 1.0 Introduction to Irrigation
Without water crops cannot grow.

However, too much water (water logging) is not good for many
crops either (except paddy rice, Jute, etc), the roots may lack
oxygen.

The main source of water for plant growth is rainwater.

– Two important questions:
• What to do if there is too much rain water?
• What to do if there is too little rain water?

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 1.0 Introduction to Irrigation
Too much rain/water, requires excess water to be removed.

The removal of excess water - either from the ground surface or from
the root zone - is called drainage.

If there is too little rain, water must be supplied from other sources
through irrigation.

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 1.1 irrigation definition
• Irrigation:
– the artificial application of water to the soil or artificial
media

Reasons
• for the purpose of crop production
• when the amount and timing of rainfall and capillary
rise (contribution by nature) are not adequate to meet
the moisture requirement of crops.

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 1.1 irrigation definition
Irrigation may be Complete, Supplemental or Protective
(Occasional)).

• Complete irrigation: artificial supply of all the water

needed by crops that might otherwise not grow there
naturally.

• Supplemental irrigation: a regular and calculated

quantity of water supplied.

• Protective irrigation: occasional supply of water to crop

during critical stage of crop growth (e.g. seed
formation) when there is shortage of water for crop
requirement.
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1.2 Importance and potential of irrigation in the world and Uganda

Hoima Peff, ETo and Irrigation Requirement

160
140
mm/month

120 Effective
100 rainfall
mm/month
80
60
40 ETo
20 mm/month

O c ber

r
er
ne
rc h

ve r
Fe uary

ri l

Irrigation
Au ly
y
Ma y

p te t

De mbe
Se g us

No obe
Ma
ar

Ju

mb
Ap

Ju

m
Requirement
bru
n

ce
Ja

mm/month

Month

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1.2 Importance and potential of irrigation in the world and Uganda

 Water stress especially critical period → yield reduction and

consequently the farmer's income.

 Irrigated agriculture can increase crop yields by 30%, 50%,

100%, 200% and even more over rain-fed agri.

 Today, irrigation covers ≈ 20 % world cropland, →40 % of total

food production.

 Irrigation accounts for ≈ 70 % of freshwater withdrawal in the

world. Fresh water finite:

 The challenge for irrigation today: contribute to the world’s food

production through a more efficient, cleaner and integrated use
of water (FAO, 2004).
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1.2 Importance and potential of irrigation in the world and Uganda

 Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ugandan economy.

– accounted for 23.42% of the GDP in 2011 (WB), employs
66% of the employed household population (UBOS, 2011).
– GoU through t(PMA) intends to transform Uganda's
agriculture from subsistence to commercial agriculture.
– Irrigation: one of the major inputs required to increase yields
/profits of the farmer.
– Markets both domestic and external for agricultural products
are on the increase. The American, European and Asian
markets are opening up through such policies like AGOA.
– Global warming: un reliable rainfall pattern, means more
irrigation
– Population growth and development : more food and fibber

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 1.3 POTENTIAL OF IRRIGATION IN UGANDA
• Uganda has plenty (Of the total 236,000 km2 , 42,000 km2
,≈18% of land surface) (Halcrow, 1964) freshwater resources and
fertile soils.
• Also considerable amount of ground water resource, Runoff
harvesting potential.
– has one of the biggest potential for irrigated agriculture.
• The areas, which need irrigation most:
– The rift valley ( Albert Nile to Rukungirir) and the cattle
corridor (Ntungamo,Isingiro,Rakai,Mbarara,Sembabule,
Luwero, Nakasonngola, Soroti, Katakwi,, Amuria, Karamoja)
region.
– The wet regions during the dry periods.

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 1.3 POTENTIAL OF IRRIGATION IN UGANDA
• This abundant water resource is used for:
– Domestic water supply (e.g. springs, shallow wells, bore-
holes, pipe water)
– Industrial use (e.g. beverage industries, food processing
industries, textile industries
– Recreation (e.g. Resort beach, Entebbe)
– Transport
– Hydroelectric power
– Tourism
– Fishing
– Agriculture (e.g. Mubuku Irrigation Scheme, Kibimba Rice
Scheme, Olweny Rice Scheme, livestock watering, etc).

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 POTENTIAL OF IRRIGATION IN UGANDA 2
Table 1 “ Location and size of potential land suitable for low cost irrigation” (Source: Halcrow, 1964)
With high in put the potential is much higher

Region Estimated potential

(Hectares)
A. Albert Nile Valley 22,260

B. Aswa River catchment 3,640

C. Karamoja and N.E. Teso 10,117

D. Lake Salisbury (Bisina) 11,332

area
E. North Bugisu and Sebei 9,308

F. Lake Kyoga Basin 81,750

G. South Busoga 22,259

H. Western region Rift valley 25,090

Plains
J. Katonga River and Lake 1,214
Wamala
K. Koki lake s(Rakai) and 2,024
Orichinga Valley
(Isingiro)
Total 188,890
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 1.4 IRRIGATION PRINCIPLES
For effective and efficient irrigation, the irrigator must know the
basic irrigation principles.
These principles include:
• 1.4.1 ESTIMATION OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)
– planning and operation of irrigation systems require the
knowledge of evapotranspiration rates of the crops grown.
• 1.4.2 ESTIMATION OF IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS,
In
– The quantity of water, exclusive of precipitation ,capillary
rise and leaching requirement, to be supplied by artificial
means has to be determined. In = ETc- Pe-W-Lr.
• 1.4.3 KNOWLEDGE OF CROP NEEDS
– Water requirements and time of maximum demand vary with
different crops. Therefore crop water needs for different crops
must be known. Crop water needs are usually determined
experimentally.
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 1.4 IRRIGATION PRINCIPLES
• 1.4.4 KNOWLEDGE OF MOISTURE DEFICIENCY
RECURRENCE
– The duration and length of dry periods during growing season
in humid and semi-humid areas has to be known. The
economic viability of irrigation in such climates largely
depends on moisture deficiency recurrence.
• 1.4.5 KNOWLEDGE OF SOIL MOISTURE RESERVOIR
– The soil’s ability to store available moisture as moisture
reservoir has to be known for effective and efficient planing
and operation of irrigation. The infiltration and permeability
of the soil has to be known in order to deter the maximum
rate of application.
• 1.4.6 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
– The time and amount of future irrigation has to be predicted.

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 1.4 IRRIGATION PRINCIPLES
1.4.7 PREDICTION OF SALINITY PROBLEMS
– The presence of excess soluble salts in the root zone reduces
the availability of water to the plant. Salinity is a serious
problem in arid and semi-arid regions. In sub humid regions,
where irrigation is provided in supplemental basis, salinity is
usually of little concern because rainfall is sufficient to leach
out any accumulated salts. The accumulated salts originate
from surface water and groundwater.
1.4.8 ESTIMATION OF LEACHING REQUIREMENTS
– The accumulated excess salts in the root zone have to be
removed by applying leaching water or drainage.
1.4.9 MAINTAINING HIGH IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES
– To avoid water logging downstream, soil erosion, poor yields
and reduced profits irrigation efficiencies must (e.g. water
conveyance efficiency, water application efficiency, water
distribution efficiency, etc) be kept as high as possible.
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 3 THE SOIL-PLANT-WATER RELATIONSHIP
• we shall discuss the properties of the soil that
affect the movement of, retention and the use of
water by plants.
• A soil consists of mineral solid particles (sand,
silt and Clay), organic matter and pore space.
– In the pore space, the space between the solid
particles, water and air can be stored.
• Water and air exist in the pore space in varying proportions,
depending on the water status of the soil.
– The pore space varies from 30% (sandy) to 60% (clay,
peat) of the total soil volume.

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 A cubic soil sample
• In figure 1 a cubic soil
sample is presented.
AIR
• Consider that all of the
SOLUTION
solid particles could be
d
a
b
compressed together
B
SOLID without leaving any
c pore space between
them.
– the soil water would
settle above the solid
– the soil air would
Figure 1
Schematic presentation of a cubic soil sample with the occupy the space
three considered soil phases: solids, solution and air.
above the soil water.
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 3.1.1 SOIL TEXTURE
Soil Sub-class USDA ISSS
Diameter Limits (mm) Diameter Limits • Mineral particles are the chief
(mm) (mm) (mm)
components of most soils on a
Gravel >2 >2
volumetric basis, except organic
Sand 2.00-0.050 2.00 -
soil such as peat.
0. • Mineral particles are classified
02
according to their size
Very 2.00 -1.00 *****
coarse
(diameter) (mm.
Coarse 1.00 - 0.50 2 to 0.2 • commonly used classifications
are those proposed by (USDA)
Medium 0.50 - 0.25 ***** and (ISSS). Table shows these
classifications.
Fine 0.25 -0.10 0.2 -0.02
• Texture is the mineral size
Very fine 0.10 -0.05 ***** distribution of the soil
• The relative proportion of
Silt 0.05 - 0.02 -
0.00 0.0
sand, silt and clay in a soil
2 02 determines it's textural class.
Coarse 0.050- • Soil Components are separated
0.02
0 using Mechanical Analysis and
Fine 0.020 -
hydrometer method.
0.00
2
• One can use a textural triangle
to determine the textural class
Clay <0.002 <0.002
of soil or feel with the hand.

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Soil Textural Triangle
• From the mechanical
analysis, the proportions of
sand, silt and clay are
obtained.
• The actual soil texture is
determined using the Soil
Textural Triangle
– e.g. for a Soil with
• 50% sand,
• 20% silt and
• 30% clay,
• the texture is Sandy Clay
Loam.
• Arranged in the
increasing order of
heaviness, there are 12 soil
textures namely: sand,
loamy sand, sandy loam,
loam, silt loam, silt, sandy
clay loam, silty clay loam,
clay loam, sandy clay, silty
clay and clay.
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Determination of Soil texture by feel method
A coarse textured soil is gritty. Individual particles
are loose and fall apart in the hand, even when
moist
Medium textured soil feels very soft (like
floor) when dry. It can easily be pressed
when wet and feels silky
Fine textured soil sticks to the fingers when wet
and can form ball when pressed
• Sand particles:
– Visible to the Naked Eye and Vary in Size.
– They are Gritty when rubbed between Fingers.
– Sand Particles do not Adhere to one another and
are therefore not Sticky
• Silt Particles are smaller than sand.
– The silt particles are too small to be seen without a
microscope.
– It feels smooth but not sticky, even when wet.
• Clays are the smallest class of mineral particles.
– They adhere together to form a sticky mass when
wet and form hard clods when dry.
• Farmers often talk of light soil (coarse) (sandy)
and heavy soil (fine) (clay).
• A coarse-textured soil is light because it is easy to
work, while a fine-textured soil is heavy because it
is hard to work
• COLLOIDAL MATERIAL
– The smaller particles (< 0.001 mm) of clay and
similar sized organic particles) have colloidal
properties and can be seen with an electronic
microscope.
– The colloidal particles have a very large area per
unit weight so there are enough surface charges to
which water and ions can be attracted.
– These charges make them adhere together.
Humus improves the water holding capacity of the
soil.
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 3.1.2. SOIL STRUCTURE
• The mineral particles and organic matter form a loosely packed matrix with spaces in
between.
• ‘soil structure’ refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of the primary soil
particles (sand, silt, clay) and the secondary soil particles (micro-aggregates) into
a certain structural pattern (macro-aggregates).
• The aggregates of textural elements are held together by colloids (minerals and
organic) and separated from one another by cracks and large pores.
• Structure defines
– water retention,
– water movement,
– soil aeration,
– root penetration,
– microbiological activities,
– resistance to erosion, etc.
• The stability of aggregates depends upon:
– clay content,
– the organic-inorganic linkages,
– microbial glue of the aggregates,
– the presence of cementing materials such as iron and aluminium oxides, compaction,
– tillage, etc.
• Structure can be improved by tillage, addition of organic matter/manure to the soil.

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 3.1.3 PARTICLE DENSITY
• Particle density, ρ , is the mass per unit
p

volume of soil particles,

– expressed in grams per cm3 (g/cm3 = kg/dm3
= ton/m3) of soil particle.
– the term specific gravity (s. g.) is often used.
• Average ρ of distinct soil components are
p

– organic matter-1.47 g/cm3;

– sand –2.66 g/cm3;
– clay – 2.75 g/cm3.
– For soil as a whole the particle density varies
from 2.6 to 2.9 g/cm3 (2.65 g/ g/cm3 in
average)
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 3.1.4 BULK DENSITY
• Bulk density,  , is the dry weight of a unit
b

volume of soil in its field condition

• expressed in grams per cm3.
•  is also known as ‘volume weight’ or
b

‘apparent density’ or “apparent specific

gravity”.
•  ranges from 1.25 to 1.65 g/cm3. The finer the
b

texture of the soil and the higher the organic

matter content the smaller the bulk density.
b 
mass dry soil
bulk volume soil

ms
vb
g / cm ....................................(1)
3

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 3.1.5 SOIL MOISTURE
• Water and air exit in the pore space.
• In a dry soil most of the pore space will be empty and filled with air, in a wet soil,
water would occupy most of the pore space.
• The soil moisture content can be expressed in several ways: Dry mass basis,
Volume basis, equivalent depth and as a depth
• Dry Mass Basis, θm
– The dry mass moisture content is given by the ratio of the mass of soil water to the mass
of dry soil (times 100if expressed as percentage

 m  100
mass soil water
mass dry soil
mass %.............................................(2)
 w * b * Acrosssection
m 
 p * c * Acrosssection
• The gravimetric method is the standard method to determine the soil moisture
content.
– consists of weighing, drying and re-weighing a soil sample.
– By means of an auger a number of representative soil samples are taken.
– The difference in mass of the sample before and after drying gives the mass of the water.
– If ms+w is the wet mass (g) of the sample and ms the mass (g) of oven dry sample, the dry
mass water percentage

 m  100
ms  w  ms
ms
mass %...................................(3)
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 SOIL MOISTURE :Volume Basis, θ
• The volume water content is the ratio of the volume of
soil water to the bulk volume of soil (times 100 if
expressed as a percentage):
volume soil water
  100 vol %.........................(4)
bulk volume soil  

• With reference to figure 1;

•  = 100b*A/B*A = 100b/B ………(5)
• Given the wet mass of the sample and the mass of the
oven dry sample, the volume moisture percentage is
given by:
ms  w  ms
  100 vol%..............................................(6)
 wVb
• If we replace Vb in (6) with Vb = ms/b from (1), w =1, we
get
ms  w  ms
  100 b  b m vol%.................................................(7)
ms  w 34
 Equivalent Depth, S
• The water content can be expressed also as the
equivalent depth of liquid water per unit soil
depth.
• With reference to figure 1, the equivalent depth
for a soil depth of B, is b.
1000 b (mm)
S .......................................(8)
B ( m)
• Combining (5) and (8), if expressed in millimetre
water per meter soil depth, the depth value is
equal to 10 times the value of the volume water
percentage:
S
1000 b (mm)
B ( m)
 10 mm(water) / m(soil depth......................................(9)
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 Water content as a depth, W
• The amount of water retained, as a depth, in a specified
soil depth (e.g. the root zone), is consequently:
W  DS  10 D mm(water)...................................(10)

• Where D (m) is the effective rooting depth in meter of the

soil and  is the volume water percentage (vol%).
• When examining water budgets, it is useful to express
the water content on volume basis or in terms of
depths. Depth is the common basis for water balance
( P = mm, ET = mm, Moisture content = mm)

36
 Porosity, n

• Porosity, n, is the ration of the volume of pores to

the total soil volume.
m m 1 1
 
Vv Vt  V p  b  p  b  p  p   b 
n      1  b ...............(11)
Vt Vt m 1 p p
b b

• Where
• b = soil bulk density
• p = particle density

37
 Example 1
• A representative soil sample is taken in the root zone (D
= 0.6m) of maize cultivated on a loamy soil (b = 1.40).
The weight of the soil sample before and after drying is
respectively 125 and 106 grams. Express the water
content of the root zone as a depth of water.
• Solution
• From equation (3), the dry mass moisture content, m =
100(125-106)/114 = 19 mass %
• From equation (6), the volume water content,  =
1.4*19= …. vol. %
• From equation (9), the equivalent water depth, S =10*….
= ….. mm (water)/m (soil depth)
• From equation (10), the water content of the root zone,
W = 0.6*….. = …… mm.
• The root zone contains ……. of water.
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 Example 2
• The root zone contains 165.0mm of water. What
will be its water content when 20 mm of water is
added through rainfall and 15 mm subtracted by
evapotranspiration?
• Solution
• Initial moisture content = 165.0 mm of water
• Rainfall =+20.0
• ET =-15.0
• The root zone will contain 170.0 mm of water

39