EARTHQUAKE DESCRIPTORS

Earthquake Magnitude
• Is the size or strength of an earthquake

History
• The concept of earthquake magnitude was introduced by Charles
Richter in 1935 in an effort to overcome the limitations of the intensity
scales.
• Richter based his magnitude scale on a measurement of the wave
motion recorded by a seismograph.
Richer defined his scale in terms of the peak amplitude recorded
by the then standard Wood-Anderson seismograph.

Because amplitude vary significantly from earthquake to

earthquake, he used logarithm to compress the range of the
scale.
SEISMIC MOMENT
• Measure is based on the size of the earthquake source.
• M0 = GAD
• M0 = seismic moment in dyne-centimeter or newton-meter
• G = shear modulus or rigidity of rock adjacent to the earthquake fault
(approximately 3 x 1011 dyne/cm2 or 3 x 1010 N/m2 )
• A = area of ruptured along fault plane.
• D = average amount of fault slip
SEISMIC ENERGY
The part of the potential energy released during an earthquake, an
explosion or another type of seismic source that is converted into
elastic seismic waves that propagate away from the source
through the Earth and cause vibrating ground motions.
It is also possible to relate magnitude to the seismic energy
released by an earthquake. An increase of one unit on the Richter
scale represents an increase of about 40 times in the amount of
seismic energy released.
The ration between seismic energy Es and seismic moment Mo is
proportional to the stress drop in the seismic source.
Earthquakes with magnitudes of 8 and greater occur rarely, but when
they occur they can lead to almost total devastation over a large area
(Table 3). Smaller earthquakes occur more frequently, but their combined
energy release is small compared with that from one great earthquake; it
would take about 3 million earthquakes of magnitude 4 to release as
much seismic energy as a single magnitude 8 earthquake. Earthquakes
with the highest Richter magnitudes are not necessarily the most
devastating, nor do they necessarily cause the greatest loss of life. The
damage depends on the depth; as mentioned previously, shallow
earthquakes are more destructive than deeper ones. It also depends on
other factors such as population density, the rock types, soil conditions
and local building standards.
Table 3 Earthquake numbers and effects

Richter Average number Radius of region Effects of

magnitude per year of strong ground shallow
shaking/km earthquake
>8.0 <1 80-160 almost total
destruction
7.0-7.9 15 50-120 serious/great
damage
6.0-6.9 140 20-80 considerable
damage
5.0-5.9 900 5-30 slight damage
4.0-4.9 8 000 0-15 felt by many
Seismic Evaluation

A certain threshold of seismic energy is required to generate

liquefaction. That threshold is primarily a function of the density and
stiffness of the granular material and the duration of earthquake
shaking. Even the most susceptible natural materials require some
seismic energy to generate a liquefied condition. The seismic factors
most commonly used by engineers to characterize seismic energy
propagating through a site are peak horizontal acceleration at ground
surface (amax) and earthquake magnitude (M).
Minimum Earthquake Magnitudes and Peak Horizontal
Ground Accelerations, with Local Site Amplification, that are
Capable of Generating Liquefaction in Very Susceptible
Natural Deposits (after Youd, 1998)

Liquefaction Hazard &gt; for Bridge Sites

Earthquake Magnitude1M w Soil Profiles Types2 I and II (stiff Soil Profile Types2 III and IV (soft
sites) sites)

M &lt; 5.2 Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.4 g Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.1 g

5.2 &lt; M &lt; 6.4 Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.1 g Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.05 g

6.4 &lt; M &lt; 7.6 Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.05 g Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.025
g

M &gt;7.6 Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.025 Very low hazard for amax &lt; 0.025
g g

1. Magnitudes are at the upper end of the magnitude intervals given by Hanson and Perkins
(1995).
2. Soil Profile Types, as defined in Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (AASHTO, 1992).
Seismic Absorption and Anisotropy
The absorption of seismic energy by rocks forms a natural constraint for the
vertical resolution of the seismic method. Higher frequency acoustic vibrations get
more and more absorbed with increasing depth and are affected by the longer
travel distance.
• The absorption is related to the non-elastic behaviour of the rocks and is often
expressed by the Q factor
The fact that the propagation velocity of a waveform is direction-dependent is
called anisotropy. The most simple case is polar anisotropy or transverse
isotropy (one axis is different whilst the property behaves the same on the other
two axes).
• Polar anisotropy thus stands for uni-axial anisotropy and the axis can be either
vertical, tilted or horizontal
Example of a Q factor calculation procedure. The seismic Q or quality factor is
equal to 2π times the ratio between the energy in the peak of an event to the
energy contained in the whole cycle. There are various ways to compute this
factor; e.g. via spectral ratios, matching filters, central frequency shift and
instantaneous frequency. In seismic data the Q values normally ranges between
20 and 300. A negative Q factor has no physical meaning and is an artefact
introduced by the calculation method based on small computation windows
after Veeken 2007.
THE CENTROID MOMENT TENSOR
PROJECT
The Global Centroid-Moment-Tensor (CMT) Project is overseen by Principal
Investigator Göran Ekström and Co-Principal Investigator Meredith Nettles
at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) of Columbia University.
The project was founded by Adam Dziewonski at Harvard University and
operated there as the Harvard CMT Project from 1982-2006, led first Prof.
Dziewonski and later by Prof. Ekström.
During the summer of 2006, the activities of the CMT Project moved with
Prof. Ekström to LDEO. This research effort moves forward under the name
“The Global CMT Project”.
The main dissemination point for information and results from the project
is the website www.globalcmt.org.
The CMT project has been continuously funded the National Science
Foundation since its reception, and is currently supported by award EAR-
16-39131.
The Global CMT Project involves four (4) main activities:

I. Systematic determination, with a three-to-four-month delay, of

moment with M>5 globally, and accumulation of the results in the CMT
catalog.
II. Rapid determination of moment tensors for earthquakes with M>5.5
globally and quick dissemination of results (”quick CMTs”).
III. Curation of the CMT catalog, which contains more than 25,000 moment
tensors for earthquakes since 1976.
IV.Development and implementation of improved methods for the
quantification of earthquake source characteristics on a global scale.
MAGNITUDE AND FAULTING
Earthquake Size – Magnitude
Magnitude is a single value that
characterizes the earthquake and is one
of the primary pieces of information used
by scientists, the media and the public
when talking about earthquakes.
Charles Richter
• The first magnitude scale was developed by Richter, who
worked out that you could correct for the amplitude change
with distance from the earthquake and fit a single curve
through the data, characterizing the size of the earthquake.

• The Richter-scale was developed for southern California

log of amplitude Distance correction
M = log A – log A0
and for data recorded on a wood-anderson seismometer
(never used any more), so it isn’t really applicable to
earthquake recorded today – the modern equivalent is the
local magnitude scale ML – but it’s hard to stop the news
media from referring to the Richter Scale, even though this
isn’t what the seismologists are using.
Earthquake magnitude:

• scales based on rupture dimensions (equivalent to energy released )

Mo= seismic moment.

= m * A * d, where m is the shear modulus
of rock; A is the rupture area, and d is
displacement

Mw= moment magnitude.

= 2/3 * log Mo - 10.7

N.B. moment scales do not saturate

Saturation of
non-moment
scales
 Types of Magnitude Scales
ML Local magnitude (California)
Mj JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency)
mb Body wave magnitude
Ms Surface wave magnitude
Mw Moment magnitude
Mwp P-wave moment magnitude
Mm Mantle magnitude
Period Range
regional S and surface waves
regional S and surface waves
teleseismic P waves
teleseismic surface waves
teleseismic surface waves
teleseismic P waves
teleseismic surface waves
There are many magnitude
scales, all are logarithmic,
but each is calculated using
different types of seismic
wave and different
0.1-1 sec
constants. Some of the more
common scales are listed
5-10 sec
here. Which is the most
1-5 sec appropriate depends on
what will be done with the
20 sec
data, for example ML is quite
> 200 sec popular with engineers
10-60 sec because it calculates the
magnitude using a period of
> 200 sec wave that is similar to the
resonance frequency of most
buildings, so it’s quite well
related to the amount of
damage caused by the
earthquake.
 Magnitudes for Tsunami Warnings

・ Want to know the moment (fault area and size)

but takes a long time (hours) to collect surface wave
or free oscillation data

・ Magnitude from P waves (mb) is fast but

underestimates moment

⇒ If have time (hours),

determine Mm from mantle waves

⇒ For quick magnitude (seconds to minutes),

determine Mwp from P waves
Mm Mantle Magnitude
Source Correction

Mm = log10(X(w)) + Cd + Cs – 3.9 The equation for the mantle

magnitude scale is similar to the
Richter scale, but a little more
Spectral Amplitude Distance Correction complicated as it specifies a specific
amplitude and corrections.

・ amplitude measured in frequency domain

・ surface waves with periods > 200 sec
Mwp P-wave moment magnitude

∫uz(t)dt ∝ Mo
Mwp is based on the integration of the displacement (the
double integration of the velocity trace), which gives the
maximum displacement. This is then proportional to the
seismic moment.
Mwp P-wave moment magnitude

Mo = Max |∫uz(t)dt| 4pra3r/Fp This shows the equation used to derive

seismic moment from the twice integrated P,
note in inclusion of a distance correction (r).
Mw = (log10Mo – 7.1)/1.5 The moment is converted to moment
magnitude (Mw) using the lower equation.

・ Quick magnitude from P wave

・ Uses relatively long-period body waves (10-60 sec)
・ Some problems for M>8.0
 Types of faults
Normal
fault

Thrust (Reverse) fault

Strike-slip fault
It is also useful (and common) to characterize earthquakes using the geometry of the fault and the slip
direction. The slide shows the three end member faults.
Normal faults are associated with tectonic tension and movement on the fault results in extension, the faults
are often steep (at least in the near surface), commonly dipping at ~60 degrees.
Reverse faults and thrust faults are associated with compressional tectonics and movement on the fault
results in shortening. Reverse faults are steeply dipping and thrust faults shallow dipping. The movement on
normal and reverse/thrust faults is sometimes referred to as dip-slip, distinguishing them from the third type
of fault.
Strike-slip fault are formed in areas with shearing forces, one side of the fault slides past the other without
causing either extension or shortening.

Strike-slip faults can be described as

either left-lateral, where the far side of
the fault moves to the left – or right-
lateral, when the far side of the fault
moves to the right.
Left-lateral Right-
lateral
Foreshocks, Aftershocks & Swarms
Mainshocks
The mainshock is the largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes
preceded by one or more foreshocks, and almost always followed by
many aftershocks.
Foreshocks
Foreshocks are rarely observed while aftershocks are always observed after
every large earthquake. Foreshocks are important for earthquake prediction and
aftershocks are vital for the study of the mechanism of the rupture of the main
shock.
A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a larger seismic event (the
mainshock) and is related to it in both time and space. The designation of an
earthquake as foreshock, mainshock or aftershock is only possible after the full
sequence of events has happened.
 Aftershocks
An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake,
in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust
adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large earthquakes can have
hundreds to thousands of instrumentally detectable aftershocks, which
steadily decrease in magnitude and frequency according to known laws.
In some earthquakes the main rupture happens in two or more steps,
resulting in multiple main shocks. These are known as doublet
earthquakes, and in general can be distinguished from aftershocks in
having similar magnitudes and nearly identical seismic waveforms.
Earthquake Swarms
Earthquake swarms are events where a local area experiences
sequences of many earthquakes striking in a relatively short period of
time. The length of time used to define the swarm itself varies, but
may be of the order of days, weeks, or months.

Causes of Earthquake swarms:

That means tectonic plates jostle each other over time.
They can also slide on top of each other, a phenomenon called
subduction. The places on the planet where one plate meets
another are the most prone to earthquakes.
This Temblor map shows the location of the earthquake swarm around
the Indonesian island of Lombok, just east of Bali. Highlighted on this
map are the earthquake which kicked off the swarm, as well as the two
M=6.9 events. In total, nearly 500 people have been killed by this swarm.
Also labeled is Mt. Rinjani, a high-active volcano on the island.
SEISMIC INTENSITY
Ross - Forrel Scale of EARTHQUAKE
INTENSITIES

Micro seismic Shock

Extreme Feeble Shock
Very Feeble Shock
Shock of moderate intensity
Fairly strong shock
Strong Shock
Very Strong Shock
Extremely Strong Shock
Shock of Extreme Intensity
Micro seismic Shock
- recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs of the same model, but not by
several seismographs of different kinds; the shock felt by an experienced observer.
Extreme Feeble Shock
- recorded by several seismographs of different kinds; felt by a small number of
persons at rest.
Very Feeble Shock
- felt by several persons at rest; strong enough for the direction or duration to be
appreciable.
Shock of moderate intensity
- felt generally by everyone; dis- turbance of furniture, beds, etc., ringing of swinging
bells.
Feeble Shock
- felt by persons in motion; disturbances of mov- able objects, doors, windows;
creaking of ceilings.
Fairly Strong Shock
- general awakening of those asleep; gen- eral ringing of house bells; oscillation of
chandeliers; stop- ping of pendulum clocks ; visible agitation of trees and shrubs ; some startled
persons leave their dwellings.
Strong Shock
- overthrow of movable objects; fall of plaster; ringing of church bells; general panic,
without damage to buildings.
Very Strong Shock
- falI of chimneys, cracks in walls of build- ings.
Extremely Strong Shock
- partial or total destruction of some buildings.
Shock Of Extreme Intensity
- great disaster, buildings ruined, disturbance of the strata, fissures in the ground, rock -
falls from mountains.
Mercalli Scale

 Measures the Intensity of an earthquake on a twelve (XII)

point scale.
 In 1902 G. Mercalli developed a fairly reliable intensity
scale which assesses the damage to various types of
structures at a specific location.
 Note that earthquake intensity is determined by several
factors including:
1) Strength of earthquake
2) Distance from epicenter
3) Nature of surface materials
4) Building design
 Mercalli Scale
 The Mercalli scale
does not give a true
indication of the
actual strength of an
earthquake because
the amount of damage
done to different places
will largely depend on,
the type of materials
used and the degree of
construction of buildings
and structures.
Richter Scale
 Measures the Magnitude of an earthquake on a ten (10)
point scale.
 In 1935, Charles Richter introduced the concept of
earthquake magnitude.
 Richter magnitude is determined by measuring the largest
amplitude (wave height) recorded on the seismogram.

 Largest recorded
earthquake had a
Richter magnitude
equal to 8.6
Richter Scale
 Richter magnitude can be expressed in two ways:
1) wave amplitude increases ten fold (10X).
2) energy released increases thirty fold (30X).
 While it is correct to say that for each increase in 1 in the
Richter Magnitude, there is a tenfold (10X) increase in
amplitude (height) of the wave;
 It is incorrect to say that each increase of 1 in Richter
Magnitude represents a tenfold (10X) increase in the size
of the Earthquake.
 A better measure of the size of an earthquake is the amount
of energy released by the earthquake.
Richter Scale
1) Wave amplitude increases tenfold (10X) with each
increase in Richter magnitude.
 Each increase in 1 in Richter Magnitude represents a
10 fold increase in the wave amplitude (height).
 Thus, a magnitude 7 earthquake measures 10 times more
amplitude than a magnitude 6 earthquake.
 A magnitude 8 earthquake measures 10 x 10 (or 100 times)
more amplitude than a magnitude 6 earthquake. And so on.
Richter Scale
2) Energy released increases thirtyfold (30X) with each
increase in Richter magnitude.
 Each increase in 1 in Richter Magnitude represents a
30 fold increase in the energy released (size).
 Thus, a magnitude 7 earthquake releases 30 times more
energy than a magnitude 6 earthquake.
 A magnitude 8 earthquake releases 30 x 30 or 900 times
more energy than a magnitude 6 earthquake. And so on ….
Medvedev–Sponheuer–
Karnik scale
MSK-64
The Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale, also
known as the MSK or MSK-64, is a macroseismic
intensity scale used to evaluate the severity of
ground shaking on the basis of observed effects in
an area of the earthquake occurrence.
The scale was first proposed by Sergei
Medvedev (USSR), Wilhelm Sponheuer (East
Germany), and Vít Kárník (Czechoslovakia) in
1964.
It was based on the experiences being available in
the early 1960s from the application of
the Modified Mercalli intensity scale and the 1953
version of the Medvedev scale, known also as the
GEOFIAN scale.
With minor modifications in the mid-1970s and
early 1980s, the MSK scale became widely used
in Europe and the USSR.
In early 1990s, the European Seismological
Commission (ESC) used many of the principles
formulated in the MSK in the development of
the European Macroseismic Scale, which is now
a de facto standard for evaluation of seismic
intensity in European countries. MSK-64 is still
being used in India, Israel, Russia, and throughout
the Commonwealth of Independent States.
 The Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale is
somewhat similar to the Modified Mercalli
(MM) scale used in the United States. The
MSK scale has 12 intensity degrees expressed
in Roman numerals (to prevent the use of
decimals).
I. Not perceptible
Not felt, registered only by seismographs. No effect
on objects. No damage to buildings.
II. Hardly perceptible
Felt only by individuals at rest. No effect on objects. No
damage to buildings.
III. Weak
Felt indoors by a few. Hanging objects swing slightly. No
damage to buildings.
IV. Largely Observed

Felt indoors by many and felt outdoors only by very

few. A few people are awakened. Moderate vibration.
Observers feel a slight trembling or swaying of the
building, room, bed, chair etc. China, glasses,
windows and doors rattle. Hanging objects swing.
Light furniture shakes visibly in a few cases. No
damage to buildings.
V. Fairly strong

Felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. A few people

are frightened and run outdoors. Many sleeping
people awake. Observers feel a strong shaking or
rocking of the whole building, room or furniture.
Hanging objects swing considerably. China and
glasses clatter together. Doors and windows swing
open or shut. In a few cases window panes break.
Liquids oscillate and may spill from fully filled
containers. Animals indoors may become uneasy.
Slight damage to a few poorly constructed buildings.
VI. Strong

Felt by most indoors and by many outdoors. A few

persons lose their balance. Many people are
frightened and run outdoors. Small objects may
fall and furniture may be shifted. Dishes and
glassware may break. Farm animals may be
frightened. Visible damage to masonry structures,
cracks in plaster. Isolated cracks on the ground.
VII. Very strong

Most people are frightened and try to run outdoors.

Furniture is shifted and may be overturned. Objects
fall from shelves. Water splashes from containers.
Serious damage to older buildings, masonry chimneys
collapse. Small landslides.
VIII. Damaging

Many people find it difficult to stand, even outdoors.

Furniture may be overturned. Waves may be seen on
very soft ground. Older structures partially collapse or
sustain considerable damage. Large cracks and
fissures opening up, rockfalls.
IX. Destructive
General panic. People may be forcibly thrown to the ground. Waves
are seen on soft ground. Substandard structures collapse.
Substantial damage to well-constructed structures. Underground
pipelines ruptured. Ground fracturing, widespread landslides.
X. Devastating
Masonry buildings destroyed, infrastructure crippled. Massive
landslides. Water bodies may be overtopped, causing flooding of the
surrounding areas and formation of new water bodies.
XI. Catastrophic
Most buildings and structures collapse. Widespread
ground disturbances, tsunamis.

XII. Very catastrophic

All surface and underground structures completely
destroyed. Landscape generally changed, rivers change
paths, tsunamis.