EWCE 351

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERIG
Topics to be covered

Highway materials

Soil aggregates in road constructions

Production, properties and uses of bituminous

materials

Mix design methods

HIGHWAY
MATERIALS
 Highway Materials
Materials generally used in construction
 Materials for Foundation/Embankment/Sub grade:
Soil
 Materials for base/ sub-base: Fine aggregate
(sand), Coarse aggregates ( Stone chips, gravel,
brick chips).
 Binding Materials : Ordinary Portland cement,
Bitumen.
 Reinforcing materials: MS Bar
 SOIL

Ref:
1. Highway Engg. By Paul H. Wright
Chapter-15, Highway Materials
2. Traffic & HW Engg J Garber, Chapter 17 Part 5
 SOIL

Definition
Soil Description:
 Residual Soil, Aeolian Soil and Glacial Soil
 Sedimentary Soil
 Organic and Inorganic Soil
STRUCTURE OF SOIL
 Common Soil Types

Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clays
 Common Soil Types
Loam
- a soil that is fairly well graded from coarse to fine, that
is easily worked/ functioned, and that is productive of plant
life. [sandy loam/ silty loam/ clay loam]
Loess
- A fine graded Aeolian soil , characterized by nearly
uniform grain size, predominantly silt.
Muck
- A soft silt or clay, very high in organic content, usually
found in swampy areas and rivers and lake bottoms.
Peat
- a soil composed of partially decomposed vegetable
matter.
 Basic Soil Properties
[affecting highway subgrades and structure foundations]
1. Moisture Content.
- is defined as the weight of water contained in a given soil
mass compared with the oven-dry weight of the soil and is
usually expressed as %.
2. Specific Gravity.
- The ratio of unit weight of soil particles to the unit weight of
water.
3. Unit Weight.
- Is the weight of the soil mass per unit volume.
4. Shearing Resistance.
- Is attributed to the existence of ‘internal friction’ and
‘cohesion’.
 Basic Soil Properties
[affecting highway subgrades and structure foundations]

5. Other Soil Properties:

Permeability
Capillarity
Shrinkage
Swelling
Compressibility
Elasticity
 Soil Gradation
Well-Graded Soils. A well-graded soil is
defined as having a good representation
of all particle sizes from the largest to
the smallest and the shape of the grain-size
distribution curve is considered "smooth.“

Poorly Graded Soils. The two types of poorly

graded soils are--Uniformly graded and Gap-graded.

A uniformly graded soil consists primarily of

particles of nearly the same size .

A gap-graded soil contains both large and small

particles, but the gradation continuity is broken
by the absence of some particle sizes .
 Grain Size Distribution Curve
• The following figure shows typical examples of well-graded and poorly graded sands
and gravels.
• Well-graded soils ((GW) and (SW) curves) would be represented by a long curve
spanning a wide range of sizes with a constant or gently varying slope.
• Uniformly graded soils ((SP) curve) would be represented by a steeply sloping curve
spanning a narrow range of sizes;
• the curve for a gap-graded soil ((GP) curve) flattens out in the area of the grain-size
deficiency.
 Soil Classification for Highway Purposes

Objective:
 To be able to predict sub grade performance of a given
soil on the basis of a few simple tests performed on the
soil in a disturbed condition.
 On the basis of these test results and their correlation
with field experience, the soil may be correctly
identified and placed into a group of soils, all of which
have similar characteristics and properties.
 Soil Classification for Highway Purposes
Principal tests are:
 Mechanical analysis: This is performed on the entire
sample and objective is to determine the proportion of
particles of various sizes in the given soil.
 Routine laboratory tests: These are performed on the
‘soil binder’ or fraction passing a No. 40 sieve.
Important routine tests are the Atterberg limits , i.e.
liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit, plasticity index
etc. The Hydrometer Analysis determines particle size
and distribution by measuring the change in fluid density
with time of a soil/water suspension in a column. It is
used mainly for fine-grained soil and is a convenient way
to determine the percent of clay in a sample.
 Soil Classification for Highway Purposes

•It is a screening process in which coarse fractions of soil are separated by

means of series of sieves. Particle sizes larger than 0.074 mm (U.S. No. 200
sieve) are usually analyzed by means of sieving.
•Soil materials finer than 0.074 mm (-200 material) are analyzed by means
of sedimentation of soil particles by gravity (hydrometer analysis).
 Soil Classification for Highway Purposes
Mechanical Analysis

 Sieve analysis is done to separate soil ( soils that contain little

or no fines, such as clean sand or a soil that may readily be
separated from the coarser particles) into its fractions .
 If fine material adheres to the coarser particles and is not
removed by drying sieving action, the sample is pre-washed and
fine material removed.
 Material that is retained on the no. 200 sieve during the washing
process is then dried and subjected to sieving as before. This is
called ‘ wet sieve analysis’.
 The practical lower limit for the use of sieves is the No. 200
sieve, which has openings 0.074 mm square.
Soil Classification for Highway Purposes
 Atterberg Limit
Consistency [stability/regularity] varies with the water content of the
soil. The consistency of a soil can range from (dry) solid to semi-
solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at which the
Consistency changes from one state to the next are called
consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).

Liquid Limit: It is the minimum moisture content at which the

soil will flow under the application of a very small shear force.
At this , the soil is assumed to behave practically as liquid
Plasticity Limit: It is the minimum moisture content at which
the soil remains in a plastic condition.
 Atterberg Limit

Plasticity Index: It is the numerical difference between the

liquid and plastic limit. It indicates the range of moisture
content over which the soil is in a plastic condition.

IP = liquid limit - plastic limit = wL - wP

 Soil Classification for Highway Purposes

1. AASHTO Classification System.

2. Unified Soil Classification System.

 AASHTO Classification System

• Soils are classified into 7 major groups A-1 to A-7 based on laboratory
determination of particle-size distribution, liquid limit and plasticity index.

• Evaluation of soil in each group is made by means of a ‘ group index’.

• The group classification including group index is useful in determining the

relative quality of the soil material for use in earthwork structure, particularly
embankments, sub grades, sub bases and bases.
AASHTO Classification System
AASHTO Classification System
 AASHTO Classification System

• Details in AASHTO and Unified Ref 1 P 902-907

 The Group Index
Group Index= (F – 35) [ 0.2 +0.005 ( LL – 40) ] + 0.01 ( F – 15) ( PI – 10 )…(1)

Where F= Percentage passing No. 200 sieve, expressed as a whole

number.
LL= Liquid limit
PI= Plasticity index
 if Eq. (1) gives a negative value then GI=0;
 round up the value calculated by Eq. (1) to an integer;
 there is no upper limit for GI;
 the GIs for soil groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 are always zero (
as F value is either 35 or less and PI is max 6/ NP, giving negative value/ zero
for A-1-a, A-1-b, and A-3 and F value is max 35 and PI is max 10, giving zero
for A-2-4, A-2-5 )
 For Group A-2-6 and A-2-7 use the second term of Eq. (1) only ( F value is 35
max, thus making first term zero).
 AASHTO Classification System
Passing No.200= 86% GI= (F – 35) [ 0.2 +0.005 ( LL – 40) ] + 0.01( F – 15)
LL=70, PI=32 ( PI – 10 )= 33.47~ 33
A-7-5(33)
LL-30=40 As PI=32 < or = 40 so A-7-5(33)
 Note that…….
 Sandy soils and silts have low PIs while clay soils show high value of
PI.
 Generally speaking, soils that are highly plastic, as indicated by a high
value of the PI, are also highly compressible.
 Plasticity Index is a measure of cohesiveness, with a high value of the
PI indicating a high degree of cohesion.
 Soils that do not have a plastic limit, such as cohesionless sands, are
reported as being nonplastic (NP).
 Under average conditions of good drainage and thorough compaction,
the supporting value of a material as subgrade may be assumed as an
inverse ratio of its Group Index;
that is , a group Index of 10 indicates a ‘good’ subgrade material
and Group Index of 20 or greater indicates a ‘very poor’ subgrade material.
 Unified Soil Classification System
pg 911
• The main Groups:
G = Gravel
S = Sand
M = Silt
C = Clay
O = Organic
* For Cohesionless Soil (Gravel and Sand), the soil can be Poorly Graded or
Well Graded
Poorly Graded = P
Well Graded = W
 Unified Soil Classification System
For Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay), the soil can be Low Plastic or High Plastic
• Low Plastic = L
• High Plastic = H

Therefore, we can have several combinations of soils such as:

GW = Well Graded Gravel
GP = Poorly Graded Gravel
GM = Silty Gravel
GC = Clayey Gravel
 Unified Soil Classification System
Passing Sieve # 4
• SW = Well Graded Sand
• SP = Poorly Graded Sand
• SM = Silty Sand
• SC = Clayey Sand

Passing Sieve # 200

• ML = Low Plastic Silt
• CL = Low Plastic Clay
• MH = High Plastic Silt
• CH = High Plastic Clay
 Consult Figure 15-2, Typical Grain Size Distribution Curve (Paul H Wright)

Coefficient of Uniformity
D10 = The effective size or ten percent size (D10) of a soil is the
particle diameter at which 10 percent by weight of the soil is finer in
size. This value is read from the particle size distribution curve for the
well graded soil.

D60 = The particle diameter at which 60 percent by weight of the soil

is finer in size.

 The steepness of the curve is given a numerical value in the

Coefficient of Uniformity Cu where Cu = D60/D10
 For poorly graded soils, the range of sizes present in a soil is small
and will have Cu values of 2 or less.
 For well graded soils, the range of sizes present in a soil is wide, the
size distribution curve is smooth, concave upwards, and will have
Cu values of 5 or more.
 Consult Figure 15-2, Typical Grain Size Distribution Curve (Paul H Wright)

Coefficient of Curvature

The shape of the central portion of the curve is assessed by the

Coefficient of Curvature Cc where Cc =(D30) 2/D10D60

Some poorly graded soils, have a deficiency of intermediate sizes and

are described as gap graded. This shows on the size distribution curve
as a ‘step’.

For well graded soils, the size distribution curve is concave upwards
giving a Cc value between 1 and 3.
MOISTURE DENSITY
RELATIONSHIPS
(SOIL COMPACTION)
MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS

Introduction:

In the construction of highway embankments, earth

dams, and many other engineering projects, loose soils must be
compacted to increase their unit weight.

Compaction improves characteristics of soils:

1- Increases Strength
2- Decreases permeability
3- Reduces settlement of foundation
4- Increases slope stability of embankments
MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS

General Principles:

* The degree of compaction of soil is measured by its unit

weight, , and optimum moisture content, wc.

* The process of soil compaction is simply expelling the air

from the voids or reducing air voids

* Reducing the water from the voids means consolidation.