Aircraft Wood

structures
AIRCRAFT ADHESIVES/GLUES

 Not every type of glue is appropriate for use in all

aircraft repair situations. Because of its importance, use
each type of glue in strict accordance with the aircraft
and adhesive manufacturer's instructions.
Types of Adhesives

 Casein glue, which was a powdered glue made from

milk, but this glue deteriorates over the years after it is
exposed to moisture in the air and to wide variations in
temperature. It is later on subjected as obsolete.
 Plastic resin glue is a urea-formaldehyde resin that is
water, insect, and mold-proof. This type of glue usually
comes in a powdered form. It should be mixed with a
liquid hardener to form and to adhere
Plastic resin glue rapidly deteriorates in hot, moist
environments, and under cyclic stresses, making it
obsolete for all aircraft structural repairs.
 Resorcinol glue is a two-part synthetic resin glue consisting of a resin
and a hardener and is the most water-resistant of the glues used. The
glue is ready for use as soon as the appropriate amount of hardener
and resin has been thoroughly mixed.
 Phenol-formaldehyde glue is most commonly used in the
manufacturing of aircraft-grade plywood. Phenol-formaldehyde glue
requires high curing temperatures and pressures making it impractical
for use in the field.
 Epoxy resins are two-part synthetic resins that generally consist of a
resin and a hardener mixed together in specific quantities.
Epoxies have excellent working properties and usually require less
attention to joint quality or clamping pressures as compared to other
aircraft adhesives.
They penetrate evenly and completely into wood and plywood structures
but Changing degrees of humidity and temperature affects the joint
durability in different epoxies.
Wood preparation

 Selecting a good type of wood that has no defects and

meets the FAA standard practices.
 Do not use sandpaper to smooth the surface. Sanding
may round corners and change the flatness of the wood
surface resulting in a joint that does not properly meet.
Sanding also produces dust that fills the ■wood pores
and causes a weak glue line. Roughening the wood
surface is also not recommended because it will prevent
uniform contact of the wood surface, which is necessary
for strong and durable glue joints.
Applying the adhesives

Avoid end-grain joints when

gluing wood scarf joints. Make
sure the wood is cut with the
grain of both pieces as close to
parallel as possible. Using end-
grain joints increases the
chance of future warping.
 lmost all types of
dhesives have four
ime-periods that
are critical to the
bonding process.
 Pot life

 Itis the useable life of the glue from the time it is mixed
until the time it must be used. Discard the glue once
the pot life has expired.
 Using glue after the pot life has expired or adding
thinners to the adhesive will not extend its life.
The Open-assembly time

 It is the allowable time between the application of the

glue and the time the joint is assembled.
 If the open-assembly time is too long, the glue will
begin to set up on the joint surfaces and the glue line
will weaken.
 Different types of adhesives have varying open-assembly
times. Follow the adhesive manufacturer's procedures
explicitly when bonding a structure.
The closed-assembly time

 is the allowable length of time between the assembling

of the joint and the application of the clamping
pressure.
 Closed-assembly time allows for the movement of parts
to place them in the proper alignment
 The pressing time
 It is the period during which the parts are pressed or
clamped together and is essentially the adhesive curing
period.
 Pressing time must be sufficient to ensure that the joint is
strong enough to withstand manipulation or the machining
process.
 The temperature of the bond line also affects the cure rate
of the glue. Each type of glue requires a specific
temperature during the curing cycle.
EXAMPLE OF TIME PERIOD GIVEN
BY THE MANUFACTURER
BONDING PROCESS

The bonding process is critical to the structural strength of an

aircraft wooden structure. To ensure the structural integrity of a
wood joint, the bonding process must be carefully controlled. It is
imperative to follow the manufacturer's repair procedures in detail
when producing a wood joint.
Following are the three most important requirements
for a strong and durable structural bond.
 Preparation of the wood surface prior to apply
ing the adhesive.
 Utilization of a good quality aircraft-standard
adhesive that is properly prepared.
 Performing a good bonding technique consistent
with the manufacturer's instructions.
CLAMPING PRESSURE

 When the joint is connected and properly aligned, apply

pressure to spread the adhesive into a thin, continuous film
between the wood layers
 The strength of a glue line is partially dependent upon the
correct pressure applied during the curing process.
 Clamping forces air out of the joint and brings the wood
surfaces together evenly. Too little clamping pressure results
in thick glue lines and weak glue joints.
CLAMPING PRESSURE

 Too much clamping pressure can squeeze out too much

glue weakening the joint.
 Clamping pressure is accomplished using clamps,
presses, or by other mechanical means
 Each type of adhesive requires a specific amount of
clamping pressure. Therefore, follow the adhesive
manufacturer's gluing procedures in detail.
CLAMPING PRESSURE

 For example, the recommended clamping pressure for

soft-woods is between 125 and 150 psi and between 150
and 200 psi for hardwoods when using resorcinol glue
 METHODS OF APPLYING
PRESSURE

 In addition to the amount of clamping pressure, the method used to

apply pressure is also important.
 Different methods range from the use of brads, nails, small screws,
and clamps, to the use of hydraulic and electrical presses.
 The choice of clamping method is important to achieving a strong and
durable joint.
Methods: Hand nailing

 It is one method of applying pressure using small nails or screws in the

bonding of ribs, attachment of plywood skins to the wing, control
surfaces, and fuselage frames.
 However, both nails and screws can produce adverse effects such as
splitting small parts and creating points where moisture may enter the
wood structure causing decay.
Methods: Hand nailing

 If you decide to utilize the hand nailing method, nailing

strips are often used to spread the pressure over a larger
area and to help in the removal of the nails after the glue
has cured.

nailing strips
Methods: Hand nailing

 To prevent the nailing strip from sticking to the wood

structure, place a piece of waxed paper between the
strip and the structure.
Methods: Hand nailing

 The nails or screws used in the hand nailing method may or may not be
removed after the adhesive has cured.
 Nails used for clamping pressure are not intended to hold the structure
together for strength purposes.
 When using nails, be careful not to crush the wood with heavy hammer
blows and do not penetrate all the way through the wood structure.
Methods:screw clamps or "C" clamps

 Pressure blocks distribute the clamping pressure and protect the

members from local crushing.
 Clamps and pressure blocks apply pressure evenly over the entire glue
joint to form a thin, even glue line, which produces a strong joint.
Methods:screw clamps or "C" clamps

 An even clamping pressure ensures that the adhesive is squeezed out of

the glue-joint uniformly. Insufficient or uneven pressure usually results in
thick bond lines that weaken the joint.
 Apply pressure to a joint for the time recommended by the glue
manufacturer. When the clamping pressure is removed, clean and inspect
the joint and remove any glue that has been squeezed from the joint.
INSPECTION OF WOOD
STRUCTURES

To effectively inspect wood structures, be familiar with

methods of inspection and the equipment used to examine
them. Also, be able to identify the types of defects that
are common to wood structures, as well as the failure
modes that are unique to them.
INSPECTION OF WOOD
STRUCTURES
 Most wood damage is caused by conditions such as
moisture, temperature, and sunlight. Because wood is
an organic material, it is subject to mildew and rot
unless protected from moisture.
INSPECTION OF WOOD
STRUCTURES
 Keep wood airplanes in well-ventilated hangars and take
special care to ensure that all of the drain and
ventilation holes remain open.
 If a ventilation hole becomes obstructed, changes in air
temperature will cause moisture to condense inside the
structure, which will cause the wood to deteriorate.
TYPES OF DETERIORATION
 The maintenance technician must be able to identify
wood deterioration to determine the airworthiness of a
wood structure. Along with the list under Wood Defects
discussed earlier in this section, the following are
several of the more common types of wood
deterioration.
TYPES OF DETERIORATION

 Wood decay results from the attack and growth of

fungus upon wood products. Decay is indicated by
softness, swelling when wet, excessive shrinkage when
dry, cracking, and discoloration. Musty or moldy odors
also indicate wood decay.
TYPES OF DETERIORATION

 Splitting or cracking of a wood member may

occur due to the varying shrinkage rates of bonded
wood members, or due to an outside force applied to the
structure.
 Wood splits often result when different types of woods
are bonded together.
 For example, bonding a mahogany plywood doubler to a
spruce member may produce a split. As the spruce dries,
it tries to shrink. However, the mahogany plywood, which
shrinks at a lower rate, holds the spruce firmly in place. The
induced stress in the spruce member exceeds its cross-grain
strength, thus resulting in a split.
TYPES OF DETERIORATION

 Bond failure is most commonly due to an

improper bonding process or prolonged exposure to
moisture. Using the wrong type of glue, not following
the manufacturer's bonding procedures or
improper wood preparation can all lead to bond failure
of the wood joint.
TYPES OF DETERIORATION

 Finish failure is the breakdown of the protective finish

applied to the wood structure to prevent decay. Finish
failure results from long-term exposure to water, wood
splitting, ultra-violet light, and surface abrasion.
TYPES OF DETERIORATION

 Stress damage is caused by excessive impact,

mechanical, or aerodynamic loads imposed upon the
wood structure. Over-tightening of fittings can also
cause wood crush and possible bending of the metal
fittings. Some applications use steel bush ings to
prevent the bolts from being tightened to a
point where the wood is crushed. Such bushingsn also
add bearing strength to the assembly.
 INSPECTION METHODS

 MOISTURE METERING-Use moisture meters

to determine the moisture content of the
wood structure. The moisture content of
any wooden member is an important factor
in its structural integrity.
 TAPPING-The wood structure may be
inspected for structural integrity by tapping
the suspect area with a light plastic
hammer or screwdriver handle. Tapping
should produce a sharp, solid noise from a
solid piece of wood. If the wood area sounds
hollow or feels soft, inspect further
 PROBING-If soft, hollow wood is found
during the tap test, probe the suspect area
with a sharp metal tool to determine
whether the wood is solid. Ideally, the wood
structure should feel firm and solid when
probed. If the area feels soft and mushy,
wood has rotted.
 PRYING-Useprying to determine whether a
bonded joint shows signs of separation.
 SMELLING-Smellis a good indicator of
musty or moldy areas.
 VISUAL INSPECTION-Visual inspection
techniques are used to determine any
visible signs of damage.
VISUAL INSPECTION

 Visual inspection techniques are

used to determine any visible signs
of damage. Both internal and exter-
nal visual examinations are
imperative to a complete inspection
of the wood structure.
External Visual Inspection

 Many airplanes that have an external skin made of thin

mahogany plywood are covered with lightweight cotton
or polyester fabric to increase both the strength and
smoothness of its surface.
 A thorough inspection is required to ensure that the
fabric covering has not pulled loose or torn away from
the wood.
 A split or tear in the fabric could be an indication of
internal damage to the wooden structure.
 Subsequently, any known surface damage requires a
careful inspection of the internal structure.
External Visual Inspection

 Minor bulging in the panels of a very light plywood

structure may be acceptable.
 Refer to the aircraft manufacturer's repair manual for
detailed specifications.
 However, large bulges or any indication of the skin
loosening requires careful examination to deter mine
the source and extent of the damage.
External Visual Inspection

 It is possible for the layers of plywood to separate, or

delaminate, which is indicated by a slight hump in an
otherwise smooth skin.
 Tap the suspected area with a coin. If the tapping
produces a dull thudding noise rather than a solid
ringing sound, it is possible that the plywood has
delaminated.
 Determine the extent of the damage and repair or
replace the skin
Internal Visual Inspection
 The most likely place for wood deterioration to begin is the
lowest point inside an aircraft's structure while the airplane is in
its normal ground attitude.
 Dirt collects at these low points and holds the moisture against
the wood until the protective coating is penetrated, wetting the
wood fibers.
 Since wood is an organic material, it is subject to mildew and rot
unless it is adequately protected from moisture.
 For the best protection, treat wood structures with a rot-
inhibiting sealer, then, after the sealant has dried for a specified
length of time, cover the entire structure with good quality
varnish.
 Internal Visual Inspection

 Open and examine the internal structure if there is any reason to suspect glue
failure or wood rot.
 This may entail creating inspection openings or even removing part of the skin.
 If any opening must be made, use procedures that are approved by the aircraft
manufacturer or by a local FAA inspector.
 When the area of suspected damage is accessible, carefully scrape away all of
the protective coating and examine the wood and glue lines. Be suspicious of any
stains in the wood.
 Stains usually accompany decay and wood rot. Perform a probe test in the sus-
pected area with a sharp point, dental probe, or other similar tool. If the wood
pulls up in a chunk, it is rotten. However, if the wood splinters, it is usually an
indication that the wood is sound. Remove and replace any wood that shows
signs of decay.
 Internal Visual Inspection

 Carefully check all of the glue lines for any indication of separation.
 Inspect glue lines with a magnifying glass, and then try to slip a thin feeler-
gauge blade into any portion of the glue line that seems to be separated.
 If the blade inserts into the crack, the joint is not sound and must be repaired
using the methods recommended by the aircraft manufacturer.
 To determine whether the glue failed or if the joint was forced apart, examine
the surfaces of the damaged joint.
 If the joint separated and the glue surface showed an imprint of the wood but
no wood fibers attached to the glue, the adhesive failed.
 However, if something physically forced the joint apart, pieces of wood would
be attached to the glue surface.
Internal Visual Inspection

 If there are any wood screws in the area where decay is suspected, remove
them and check to see if they show any signs of corrosion or water stains.
 Replace the screw if the old one shows no indication of corrosion and the
wood shows no sign of decay in or around the screw hole.
 Replace it with a screw of the same length but of the next larger size.
 Be sure that the replacement screw is made of the material specified in the
aircraft's illustrated-parts manual.
Internal Visual Inspection

 Wood spars utilize reinforcement plates made of birch

plywood that are glued to the ends of any splices, under
the butt-end fittings, and the strut attachment fittings.
 Carefully inspect these plates to ensure that they have
not separated from the spar.
 If a glue line failure is indicated between the spar and
the plate, remove the plate and all traces of the glue
then install a new plate.
 Internal Visual Inspection

 Shake the wing to detect any looseness between the struts and the wing spar.
 Any movement indicates possible elongation or wear at the bolthole.
 In this case, remove the bolts and carefully examine them and the boltholes
for wear, cracking, or elongation.
 An elongated bolthole or any cracks near them require that you splice in a
new section of spar or replace the entire spar.
 The manufacturer's repair manual outlines acceptable tolerances.
 Internal Visual Inspection

 If a wooden structure has been subjected to any unusual strain or

extreme loads, carefully inspect the main load-carrying members
for any indication of compression failure on the side that carried
the compressive load.
 A compression failure usually appears as a fine line across the
grain, indicating that the fibers in the wood have actually been
ruptured.
 Replace any wood that shows this type of failure.