CHAPTER 3

DATA AND SIGNAL

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Position of The Physical Layer

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Duties of Physical Layer

Bandwidth
Bit-signal Bit
Bit-rate control utilization:
transformation synchronization
Multiplexing

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Data & Signal

Data Signal Transmission

• Entities that • Electric or • Communication

convey electromagnetic of data by
meaning representations propagation
• To be of data • and processing
transmitted, • means by which of signals
data must be data are
• transformed to propagated
electromagnetic
signals.

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Analog and Digital Data

• Analog data refers to • Digital refers to

information that is information that has
continuous discrete states

• e.g human voice, video • e.g. data stored in the

memory of computer in
the form of 0s and 1s

Analog Data Digital Data

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Analog and Digital Signals

• can have an infinite number of

Analog signals
values in a range

• can have only a limited number

Digital signals
of values

The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a

pair of perpendicular axes:
-vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal
-horizontal axis represents time

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Comparison of Analog and Digital Signal

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Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

• Both analog and digital signals can be in two forms;

Periodic signals
• consists of continuous
repetitive pattern within a
time frame called period
• the completion of one full
pattern is called cycle
Nonperiodic signals
(aperiodic)
• has no repetitive pattern
• can be decomposed into
infinite number of
periodic signals

• In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog

signals and nonperiodic digital signals

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Periodic Signals

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Nonperiodic Signals

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Periodic Analog Signals

• Can be classified as simple or composite

• A simple periodic analog signal:

a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals

• A composite periodic analog signal:

is composed of multiple sine waves

• Sine wave can be described by three characteristics:

1. Peak amplitude (A)
2. Frequency (f)
3. Phase (ø)

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Sine Wave Signal

S(t) = A sin (2  f t +  )

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Sine Wave: Peak amplitude (A)

• Peak amplitude (A)

– The value of its highest intensity, proportional to the
energy it carries
– Measured by volts

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Sine Wave: Peak amplitude (A)

Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes
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Sine Wave: Frequency ( f )

• Period (T) and frequency (f)

– The amount of time (in seconds) needs to complete in
one cycle
– Period = time for one repetition (T)
– Frequency (f) = the number of period in a second
(expressed in Hertz)
– Frequency and period are the inverse of each other

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Sine Wave: Frequency ( f )

Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different frequencies
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Sine Wave: Frequency ( f )

• Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

- high frequency = change in a short span of time
- low frequency = change over a long span of time
- zero frequency = if a signal does not change at all
- infinite frequency= if a signal changes instantaneously

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Units of Period and Frequency

Units of period and frequency

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Example 1:

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

1 ms = 10-3 s
1 s = 106 μs

We make the following substitutions:

100 ms = 100  10-3 s = 102  10-3  106 μs = 105 μs

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Example 2:

A period of signals is100 ms. Express the corresponding

frequency in kilohertz.

1 ms = 10-3 s
1 Hz = 10-3 kHz

First we change 100 ms to seconds

100 ms = 100  10-3 s = 102  10-3 s = 10-1 s

Then we calculate the frequency from the period

f = 1 Hz = 10 Hz = 10 x 10-3 kHz = 10-2 kHz
10-1

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Example 3:

Express a period of 1,000,000 μs in second.

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Example 4:

A period of signals is 1,000,000 μs. Express the corresponding

frequency in kilohertz.

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Example 5:

The power in your house (North America) can be represented by

a sine wave with a peak amplitude between 110 to 220 V.
The power we use at home (North America) has a frequency of
60 Hz. What is the period of this sine wave?

T =1 = 1 = 0.0166 s = 0.0166 x 10-3 ms = 16.6 ms

f 60

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Example 6:

The power in your house (Malaysia) can be represented by a

sine wave with a peak amplitude between 220 to 240 V.
The power we use at home has a frequency of 50 Hz. What is
the period of this sine wave?

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Sine Wave : Phase (ø)

• Phase (ø)
– Described the position of the waveform relative to time zero
– Measured in degrees or radians:
• 360° = 2π rad
• 1° = 2π/360 rad
• 1 rad = 360/(2π)
– Four types of phase:
• 0°
• 90°
• 180°
• 270°

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Sine Wave : Phase (ø)

Phase change

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Sine Wave : Phase (ø)

Four sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency, but different phases
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Example 7:

A sine wave is offset 1/6 of a cycle with respect to time 0. What is its
phase in degrees and radians?

1) Phase in degree:
One complete cycle is 360 degrees. Therefore, 1/6 cycle:
1 x 360 = 60°
6
2) Phase in radians:
1° is 2π/360 rad. Therefore, 60° :
60 ° x 2π rad = π = 1.046 rad
360 3
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Example 8:

A sine wave is offset 1/8 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?

1) Phase in degree:

2) Phase in radians:

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Example 9:

A sine wave is offset 3/4 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?

1) Phase in degree:

2) Phase in radians:

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Sine Wave: Wavelength

• Distance occupied by one cycle

• Distance between two points of corresponding phase in two
consecutive cycles
• It binds the period of a sine wave to the propagation speed of
the medium

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Sine Wave: Wavelength

• Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation

speed (the speed of light) and the period of the signal.
• However, since period and frequency are related to each
other, if we represent:
– wavelength = λ micrometers or microns
– propagation speed = c c = 3*108 m/s
– frequency =f

Wavelength= propagation speed x period= propagation speed

frequency

λ = ct or λ= c d
f
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Example 10:

Calculate the wavelength of red light if its frequency is 4 x 1014

λ= c d
f

λ = c = 3*108 8= 0.75 * 10-6 m = 0.75 microns

f 4 x 1014

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Sine Wave: Time & Frequency Domain

• Time and Frequency domain

– The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude
with respect to time
– To show relationship between amplitude and frequency,
we use frequency domain plot
– An analog signal is best represented in the frequency
domain

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Sine Wave: Time & Frequency Domain

Time and frequency domains

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Sine Wave: Time & Frequency Domain

• The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we

are dealing with more than one sine wave.
– e.g: Figure below shows three sine waves, each with different amplitude
and frequency.
– All can be represented by three frequency spikes in the frequency
domain.

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Composite Signals

• A single-frequency sine wave is NOT useful in data

communications;
• We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many
simple sine waves.

Fourier analysis

• any combination of simple sine waves with different

frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

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Composite Signals

• If the composite signal is periodic:

– the decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete
frequencies

• If the composite signal is nonperiodic:

– the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with
continuous frequencies

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Composite Signals

Example:

• Figure below shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency ( f ). This type of signal is not typical of those found
in data communications. We can consider it to be three alarm
systems, each with a different frequency.

• The analysis of this signal can give us a good understanding

of how to decompose signals.

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Composite Signals

A composite periodic signal

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Composite Signals

Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and

frequency domains
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Composite Signals

Example:

• Figure below shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be

the signal created by a microphone or a telephone set when a
word or two is pronounced.

• In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic, because

that implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

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Composite Signals

The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

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Bandwidth (B)

• The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference

between the highest (fh) and the lowest (fl) frequencies
contained in that signal.

• The bandwidth of a medium:

– the difference between the highest (fh) and the lowest (fl)
frequencies that the medium can satisfactorily pass

B = fh - fl

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Bandwidth (B)

Bandwidth

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Example 10:

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies

of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is the bandwidth?
Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum
amplitude of 10 V.

Bandwidth:
B = fh - fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 (see
Figure 3.9 )

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Example 10:

Bandwidth spectrum:
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900.

The bandwidth for Example 10

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Example 11:

• A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz.

What is the lowest frequency?
• Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of
the same amplitude.

Solution

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Example 11:

Bandwidth spectrum:
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900.

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Example 12:

A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000 and 2000

Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass frequencies from
3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000 Hz). Can this signal
faithfully pass through this medium?

Solution

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Exercises

• Given the frequencies listed below, calculate the corresponding

periods.
a. 8 MHz
b. 140KHz

• Given the following periods, calculate the corresponding

frequencies.
a. 5 s
b. 220 ns

• What is the phase shift for the following?

a. A sine wave with the maximum amplitude at time zero
b. A sine wave with maximum amplitude after 1/4 cycle
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Exercises

• What is the bandwidth of a signal that can be decomposed into five

sine waves with frequencies at 0, 20, 50, 100, and 200 Hz? All peak
amplitudes are the same. Draw the bandwidth.

• A periodic composite signal with a bandwidth of 2000Hz is

composed of two sine waves. The first one has a frequency of 100
Hz with a maximum amplitude of 20 V; the second one has a
maximum amplitude of 5 V. Draw the bandwidth.

• Which signal has a wider bandwidth, a sine wave with a frequency

of I 00 Hz or a sine wave with a frequency of 200 Hz?

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