HOW

EVOLUTION
WORKS
 The theory of evolution is one of
the best-known scientific theories
around.
As a scientists continue to examine
the diversity of life and their
evolutionary history, they observed
different kinds of patterns of evolution.
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 Two major evolutionary
patterns observed in nature:
MICROEVOLUTION
The minor
differences in the
genetic level between
populations of the same
species providing
evidence for diversity
within individuals.
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▪ Synthetic theory of evolution- The knowledge of
biologists in the 1930’s and 1940’s combined to make
an evolutionary theory with genetics to better explain
evolution. 6
The theory suggest:
a. In reproductive cells, gene mutations can
occur in high-enough frequencies to impact
evolution.
b. Regardless of the organisms’ survival needs
in the environment, gene mutations can occur in
random directions.
c. Natural selection acts on genetic diversity due
to random mutations.
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 THE AGENTS OF
MICROEVOLUTION
DNA MUTATION AS AN AGENT OF GENETIC VARIATION
Cells have the complex ability to safeguard the DNA’s
integrity that its information is copied accurately every time the cell
divides. However, random mistakes could happen if the DNA is
damaged or when the enzymes that copy the DNA insert a wrong
nitrogenous base or deletes or skips a base.
Mutations should be seen as a source of genetic variation,
which is essential to natural selection. 8
 TRIVIA
▪ On average, every individuals produces a new
version of a gene for the next generation.
▪ There are about 22,000 genes in every human and
with about 7.5 billion humans in the world that could
lead to many human variations.
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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION, SEXUAL SELECTION
AND NONRANDOM MATING

• Genetic variation among

individuals in a population can
also arise from the
mechanism of sexual
reproduction.

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▪ Non random mating tendencies can also impact the
distribution of alleles in a given population. Some
organisms prefer to mate with relatives who are
similar to them than with unrelated members, which
we call as inbreeding.

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▪ Sexual selection also plays a role in natural
selection and is directly related to courtship and
mating behaviors. In nature, female’s selective
preference and male competition can lead to sexual
dimorphism, where females and male exhibit
distinct morphological characteristics.

Mandarin Ducks

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Peafowls Pheasants 13
GENE POOL AND FREQUENCY
▪ Allele frequency or gene frequency refers to how
common an allele is in a population. It is determined
by counting how many times the allele appears in the
population then dividing by the total number of copies
of the gene.
▪ Gene pool is the entire collection of genes and its
alleles.

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For example, consider that
a gene has two possible
alleles, represented by A
and a. In a given population
of 100 diploid individuals,
the gene has 200 alleles.
If 150 of those alleles
represent A, then the
frequency of that allele is
150/200 (equivalent to
0.75).
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GENETIC DRIFT

▪ When the gene distribution in small populations

evolve randomly by chance, which is observed in a
phenomenon called genetic drift.
▪ It is observed during catastrophe events such as
floods or fires that kill a portion of a populations and
reduce infant survival or mating randomness.

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Two cases where genetic drift is found in small
populations rather than large populations

▪ Founder effect- when few individuals become

separated from the rest of the population.
▪ Bottleneck Effect- when the size of the population
is severely reduced, leaving a few surviving
individuals to reproduce and re-establish in the new
environment.
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MACROEVOLUTION
The big changes that can
happen in allele frequencies
among population. It focuses on
the major differences that have
occurred over long periods, which
led to a genetic change that
allowed a new kind of species to
emerge. 20
 Patterns Of Evolution Within
the Species Level
▪ Gene flow- As organisms interact with environmental conditions,
their numbers may either increase, decrease or remain stable. In
genetic level, it refers to movement of alleles (traits) out of a
population.

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Immigration
Individuals moving into
an existing group of
population.

Emigration
When certain members
leave their group.

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▪ Speciation- a group of organisms that have similar
characteristics and can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring. When the populations of the
organisms are separated by physical, geographical
or behavioural barriers, the two populations are
prevented from interbreeding.
1. Physical Separation and Genetic Isolation
Geographic isolation
Geographic factors can lead to species to evolve
as food availability or resources may be limited at
different locations 23
 Geographical  Peripatric
speciation- also speciation- occur
known as allopatric during disasters that
speciation. The may kill off all, but few
differences are big members of isolated
enough that they can population.
no longer breed if
they are taken back
together. 24
Reproductive isolation
 Sympatric  Parapatric speciation- a
speciation- when population evolve at the
species evolved even edge of the range where
without any members of the population
geographical barrier. do not mate randomly and
Individuals are not instead mate with their
separated and live neighbors more than those
found in different parts of the
together in one
population range.
place. 25
2. Temporal or Season Isolation Through Habitat
Specialization
It exist in some species especially when
performing different ecological niches. Some
have different breeding seasons such as in the
case of the red legged frog (Rana aurora), which
breeds in January to March while its close relative
yellow-legged frog (Rana boylii), breeds in late
March and May
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 3. Behavioral Isolation Due to Different Mating
Behavior

The mating behaviour or breeding requirements

as a selective forces that can act on populations.
4. Mechanical isolation
Some species exhibit differences in the
morphological characteristics of their reproductive
organs which can lead to incompatibility in terms of size
and shape of the genitalia during mating .
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 5. Gametic Isolation
The sperm and ovum of certain species cannot
fuse together because they are chemically
incompatible.
Some species’ sperm cannot fertilize another
species’ egg because if a chemical surrounding the
egg, which can only be fertilized by binding with
chemicals from the same species.

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 Patterns of Evolution Above
the Species Level
Divergent Evolution
It is the common concept of
an evolutionary pattern in which it
occurs when closely related
species divert to new habitats,
often as a result of diverging
lifestyles, ultimately producing
distinct species. 29
D
 A classic example of divergent evolution is
I E seen in Darwin’s theory about the evolution of
V V humans and apes coming from a common
O primate ancestors.
E L
 Over time, the divergent evolution could lead
R U
to development of two new species
G T
I
E O
N N
T 30
Convergent Evolution
 A group of distantly related
lineages tend to evolve
similar structures as
adaptations to a similar
habitat or way of life.
 The similarities are said to
be analogous rather than
homologous
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EXTINCTION
 The total disappearance of all the members of a
certain species from the planet.
 It marks the end of a species’ life on Earth.
 All the members have been wiped out in the planet
due to various factors.

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TYPES OF EXTINCTION
1. Background Extinction
The gradual process of species becoming extinct.
▪ Scientists estimate that the average annual background
extinction rate is 1:5 species foe each million species.

2. Local Extinction
When certain population of organisms that are endemic
to a place dies.
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3. Mass Extinction
The rate of extinction dramatically increases
as large populations of organism die in a relatively
short period.
4. Premature Extinction
Humans have prematurely increased the
disappearance of species by as much as 1 000
times above the background extinction rate.

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 ENDANGERED
SPECIES
Species who are
in danger of becoming
extinct in the near
future. THREATENED
SPECIES
Species that could
become endangered due
to the threats in their
environment. 35
AMUR LEOPARD HAWKSBILL TURTLE

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 ADAPTIVE RADIATION
When ancestral species invades a new
territory with no known competitors, allowing them to
exploit the resources of the said environment and
occupy a specific niche.

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COEVOLUTION
The type of
evolution usually observed
in predatory-prey
relationships as well as
those species with very
close interspecific
interactions such as in
mutualism and
competition. 39
Obligatory mutualism
Beyond pollination, some partnerships are so
matched that removing one in the environment could lead
to the extinction of the other species.

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THANK
YOU
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