ABC’s to Oceanography

Index of Oceanography Terms

 Atmosphere  Numerical Models
 Buoyancy  Ocean
 Currents  Phytoplankton
 Density  QuikSCAT
 Epipelagic Zone  Rain
 Food Chain  Sea Spray
 Gulf Stream  Tides
 Hydrophones  Upwelling
 Inertia  Vector Wind Stress
 Jason-1  Waves
 Knot  Heat Flux
 Lead Line  Oceanography
 Meteorology  Zooplankton
 Did you know?
tmosphere If Earth were the size
of a beach ball, the
Image from Microsoft
atmosphere would be Office Clip Art
thinner than a piece
 A thin blanket of air that protects Earth of paper
 The atmosphere is crucial to life on Earth
 Without the atmosphere:
• Organisms would die within a few minutes
• There would be no lakes, oceans, sounds, clouds, or red sunsets
• Earth would experience extremely cold temperatures at night and extremely warm
temperatures during the day

Fast Fact:
99% of the
atmosphere is
contained within 30
kilometers of
Earth’s surface
http://www.flickr.com/photos/blueforce4116/13982448 http://www.flickr.com/photos/blueforc
14/in/set-72157602039248380/ e4116/1398244602/
 Extension of Atmosphere
 The atmosphere and the ocean are closely linked
• The entire atmosphere holds as much heat as the top 2.5 meters (8 feet) of the ocean
• The entire atmosphere holds as much water as 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) of the ocean
 Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) - lowest part of the atmosphere
• Wind strength and the heat flux between the air and ocean impact ABL thickness
 Cloud patterns within the ABL
• Cumulus & stratocumulus at the top of a humid ABL
• Fog at the bottom of a stable ABL (little mixing)

Cumulus Stratocumulus Fog

http://www.flickr.com/photos/kubina/152730867/ http://www.flickr.com/photos/momofone98/140363329/ http://www.flickr.com/photos/mre770/322389785/

 Did you know?
uoyancy Human bodies
cannot sink in the
Dead Sea
because the water
is so dense
 A force created by differences in density
 When two substances with different densities are
mixed in a container, buoyancy causes the:
• Less dense substance to rise to the top
• More dense substance to sink to the bottom http://www.flickr.com/photos/machielse/
363855772/

 Where is buoyancy visible in real life?

• Hot air balloons rise in • Syrup sinks to the

the air because the warm bottom of a glass
air inside the balloon is of water because
less dense than the syrup is more
surrounding air dense than water
Image from Microsoft
Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art Office Clip Art
 Fast Fact:
urrents Surface currents
affect the top 10%
of the ocean

 Continuous, directed movement of large streams of ocean water

 Two major types of currents:
• Surface Currents
• Form when surface winds push the water in the direction of the wind
• Deep Ocean Currents
• Huge water masses move and mix in response to changes in water
temperature and salinity

 Why are currents important?

• Currents influence the climate, ship
routes, and the lives of plants
Fast Fact:
and animals living on land
The Gulf Stream is
and in oceans both a surface
current and a deep http://science.hq.nasa.gov/oceans/physical/OSC.html
ocean current
 Extension of Currents
 Coriolis Effect - the earth’s rotation causes ocean currents to bend
• Northern Hemisphere currents forced to the right
• Southern Hemisphere currents forced to the left
• Coriolis force is strongest at the Poles and weakest at the equator
• The bending angle of currents increases with ocean depth
• A deep ocean current may flow in a direction different than the surface current

Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

Expected path of water without Coriolis Effect
Actual path of water with Coriolis Effect
20
 Fast Fact:
All the land on earth
ensity would be covered
with 5 feet of salt, if
the ocean’s salt
content were dried

 A measure of how heavy something is

Image from Microsoft
in relation to its size (mass per unit volume) Office Clip Art

 Temperature and salinity affect the density of ocean water

• What is salinity?
• A measure of the amount of salt dissolved in water
Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

 Graph shows density of ocean water

based on salinity and temperature
 Observations from graph:
• An increase in temperature results in a
decrease in density
• An increase in salinity results in an
increase in density
16
 Extension of Density
 Ocean density changes throughout
• Low density water can be found near the surface
• High density water can be found deep in the ocean
 Pycnocline – an ocean layer where water density
increases rapidly with depth
 Changes in the density of surface water:
• If the density of the surface water decreases
• Its position will remain the same 18
• If the surface water becomes more dense
than the water below
• It will sink to a level where there is
water with the same density

18
 Epipelagic Zone

pipelagic Zone Mesopelagic Zone

Fast Fact:
Light penetrates
hundreds of feet in
 Top layer of the ocean where the Caribbean, but
sunlight is present only a few inches in
 Plants take in the sunlight to the Hudson river

complete photosynthesis
• The epipelagic zone is the only zone where plants are found

 What can be found below the epipelagic zone?

• The mesopelagic zone, or twilight zone
• The dim light found in this zone does not provide enough
energy for plants to perform photosynthesis
• In the 3 zones that exist beyond this zone there is zero sunlight

22
 Fast Fact:
99% of earth’s
living space is
ood Chain contained by
the oceans

 A sequence of marine organisms that pass nutrients to

one another
 Sun - main source of energy for marine food chains
 Producers take in the Sun’s energy to make their food
• Phytoplankton – major producers in the ocean
 Consumers eat other organisms since they cannot
produce their own food

 Does pollution harm the food chain?

• Yes
• If phytoplankton absorb marine pollutants, the pollutants
eventually accumulate to lethal levels in larger animals
 What is a food web?
• Several intertwined food chains resultant of organisms
belonging to more than one food chain
20
 Did you know?
ulf Stream Benjamin Franklin
named the Gulf
Stream

 A strong, warm water ocean current

 General flow of the Gulf Stream:
• The current begins in the western Caribbean Sea,
passes through the Gulf of Mexico and the Straits
of Florida, and then flows along the North
American coast to northern European waters
Modern Map of the Gulf Stream 10
• The exact path the current takes changes daily

 Example impact of the Gulf Stream:

 The current is about 80°F near the Gulf of
Mexico
 The Gulf Stream releases heat into the
atmosphere as it cools along its journey
• Added heat in the atmosphere
16
significantly warms Europe
The 1786 version of the Franklin-Folger map of the Gulf Stream
 Extension of Gulf Stream
 The Gulf Stream flows at a rate of Fast Fact:
4 miles per hour (6.5 kilometers per hour) The rate of flow in the
 The strong current can be felt as deep Gulf Stream at the
Straits of Florida is
as 1500 feet from the surface 300 times the rate of
 Characteristics of the boundary between flow in the Amazon
the Gulf Stream and the surrounding water: river
• The temperature is usually 11°F to 18°F (6°C to 10°C)
warmer than water surrounding the current
• The water within the Gulf Stream is
warm and clear blue due to its lack
of nutrients
• The water surrounding the Gulf Stream is
cloudy green due to the large
quantity of phytoplankton

17
False-Color Image of
Temperature Data for Gulf Stream
 ydrophones

Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

 Underwater microphones that record underwater sound

 Sound in the ocean is produced mainly by:
• Bubbles created from breaking waves and falling rain
• The engine and propellers of ships
• Marine mammals like whales and dolphins

 Why do scientists record the sound of rain falling on the water?

• To measure and understand global rainfall patterns
• Rain is a very important part of climate
• The measurements help meteorologists, oceanographers, and
scientists in their study of the climate

Image from Brüel & Kjær Sound & Vibration Measurement A/S
http://www.bksv.com/pdf/Bp0317.pdf
 Fast Fact:
Inertia is Sir
nertia Isaac Newton’s
1st Law of
Motion

Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

 The property of an object to remain at a constant velocity (speed) unless acted

on by an outside force
 The ocean has a high temperature and momentum inertia in comparison to the
atmosphere

 Example of oceanic vs. atmospheric inertia:

• Circulation in the ocean occurs at a slow rate
• Changes occur over months, years, decades,
and centuries
• Atmospheric weather systems form and break
apart within a single day
• Changes occur over seconds, minutes, hours,
and days
Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art
  Jason-1 is an Earth-orbiting satellite used
ason-1 for ocean surveillance
• Launched in December 2001
 Radar altimeters on Jason-1 measure sea
level:
• Microwave signals are sent by the
altimeter to the ocean’s surface
• The length of time it takes the signal to
travel down to the surface and back is
recorded
• Scientists use this information and the
satellite’s location to determine sea level

 Why do oceanographers use altimeters?

• Detect and monitor ocean currents
• Tide monitoring modeling
 Oceanographers need to be able to study
all of the worlds’ oceans to understand
http://science.hq.nasa.gov/oceans/physical/OST.html
their impact on our weather and climate
 Extension of Jason-1
 In order to mathematically determine the distance from the satellite to the ocean
surface:
• Divide the total time by two and multiply by the speed of light (c ≈ 3 x 108)
 Water vapor in the air can cause Jason-1 to overestimate the distance from the
satellite to the ocean’s surfacehttp://lennthompson.typepad.com/lenndevours/miscellaneous_sips/index.html
by as much as 10 centimeters
• Jason-1 listens to the radio waves produced by the clouds and the ocean, to
determine the amount of water vapor in the air and correct for the error
 Jason-1 is able to complete its entire process and
transmit the data back to earth within 3 hours
Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

Did you know?

If Jason-1 was flying at
35,000 feet (like a
jetliner), it could
measure the thickness
http://www.flickr.com/photos/umpqu
of a dime
a/96624719/
  A knot is a nautical mile per hour

not • A nautical mile equals 6,076 feet or 1,823 meters

 1 knot is equal to 1.15 miles per hour (mph) or
1.85 kilometers per hour (kph)

Fast Fact:
Most cruise ships
travel at a
maximum speed
of 22 knots or
25.3 mph

http://www.flickr.com/photos/tcd123/743633948/ http://www.flickr.com/photos/lyng883/329639190/
 How did early sailors use a knot to measure the speed of a ship?
• Knots were tied at regular intervals along a rope and a log was attached to the end
• The rope was thrown overboard and the log floated along behind the moving ship
• A sailor counted the number of knots that passed through his hands during a
specified amount of time
• The more knots that passed through the sailors hands, the faster the ship was
moving
 The term knot continues to be used today to measure a ship’s speed
 ead Line Lead Line

 A long piece of rope that had a lead weight tied at

one end and markings in six foot intervals
• The weight was thrown into the ocean
• Measurements were taken by noting how much line
went into the ocean until the lead reached the bottom

http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/tr
ansformations/hydrography/side.html

Echo Sounder
 Lead lines were used by early sailors to determine:
• Ocean depth at certain points along a journey
 What is currently used to measure ocean depth?
• Echo sounders provide oceanographers with a
graphical view of the sea floor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_sounding
 Extension of Lead Line
 How do echo sounders measure sea level?
• A pulse of sound energy is sent toward the bottom
of the ocean
• Sound disturbs water as it travels through it,
creating sound waves
• The amount of time it takes the pulse to travel to the
bottom and back up to the surface is recorded and
the depth of the water is then calculated
 Sound waves are the most efficient signal in sensing
the ocean below a depth of a few 10’s of meters
 The average speed of sound in water is
1500 meters per second Fast Fact:
• Applies to ocean water free of air bubbles The speed of
• Speed of sound in water is dependent on: sound in water is 16
• Depth of ocean water 4 times faster Graph of the Speed of
• Temperature than the speed of Sound (C) at various
depths of the ocean
sound in air
• Salinity
 eteorology

 Meteorology is the study of the

atmosphere and the interaction
between the atmosphere and the
land, ocean, and life
Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

 The physics, chemistry, and unique processes of Earth’s atmosphere are

explored in great detail by meteorologists
• Meteorologists try to completely understand the atmosphere, so they can predict
how it is going to behave

Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art
 umerical Models
 Mathematical calculations that provide oceanographers
with detailed views of circulation in the oceans
 Two main types of numerical models:
• Mechanistic models – simplified models that examine the
mathematics behind physical processes
• Simulation models – complex models that can be used to Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art
calculate the realistic flow in the ocean

 What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of using numerical models?
• Advantage:
• The models can be used to simulate realistic flow and predict future flow in the
ocean
• Disadvantage:
• The models cannot give completely accurate descriptions of the flow in the ocean
 Fast Fact:
cean The average
depth of the
ocean is 3.7 km
(about 2 miles)
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/

 A large body of salt water

 Millions of years ago Earth’s surface was very hot and all the water boiled away
• Volcanoes released large amounts of steam into the atmosphere
• As Earth cooled, the steam changed to water vapor, and condensed to raindrops
• Rain fell thousands of years filling all the cracks on Earth with ocean water

 What impact does air-sea interaction have on Earth?

• The ocean constantly interacts with the atmosphere, exchanging
Did you know?
heat, moisture, and carbon dioxide (CO2)
The pressure at the
• The air-sea interaction drives our weather Fast Fact:
deepest point in the
patterns and influences the slowly 71% of Earth’s
ocean is equivalent to
1 person trying to occurring but dramatic changes in surface is
hold 50 jumbo jets our climate covered by
oceans
 Fast Fact:
hytoplankton On a favorable day,
phytoplankton
concentration may
increase by as much
as 300%
 Microscopic, single-celled marine plants that
need water, CO2, sunlight, and chemical nutrients to grow
 Phytoplankton use a pigment called chlorophyll to capture sunlight during
photosynthesis
• They decrease the amount of sunlight that reaches deeper water
• Confines oceanic heating to a small layer

 Why are phytoplankton important?

• Approximately half of the oxygen we breathe
is produced by phytoplankton
• They take in CO2 from the atmosphere at the
same rate as land plants
• All marine life is dependent upon the quantity
of phytoplankton available

http://www.flickr.com/photos/dodeckahedron/132430686/
 Extension of Phytoplankton
 Currents can usually be traced by their supply of phytoplankton
 Scientists use satellites to remotely observe chlorophyll, which is contained in the
phytoplankton
• The images tell them:
• How much phytoplankton is present in the ocean
• Where they are located
• How much work they are performing
• How their populations are changing
 On Earth, humans can observe the phytoplankton
Fast Fact:
present in lakes and oceans On a favorable day,
• Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light 20,000 specimens of
and reflects green light phytoplankton may be
3
• A water source that appears green in contained in 1 ft of
color most likely contains some phytoplankton ocean water

Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

 uikSCAT
 A satellite NASA uses to create an
image of the surface winds on Earth
 The QuikSCAT satellite carries a
SeaWinds scatterometer
• A scatterometer is a microwave radar
that can measure near-surface wind
speed and direction over the ocean
under any weather conditions

 Why are scatterometers useful?

• They are giving meteorologists:
• More accurate measurements of
the winds associated with storms
• Advanced warning of high waves
and flooding
http://science.hq.nasa.gov/
 ain

http://www.flickr.com/photos/viewthis/521909936/

 Precipitation that falls from clouds toward Earth’s surface

 Rain is an important part of the climate
• The latent heat released into the atmosphere upon the formation of raindrops is a
significant form of energy that drives circulation in the atmosphere

 Why do meteorologists, oceanographers, and climate scientists find it important

to measure rainfall patterns?
• Scientists suspect that after rainfall the layers of fresh water at the
surface of the ocean affect circulation in the ocean Did you know?
• Rainfall appears to calm the seas
Falling drops of
• Scientists question impact of rainfall on ocean damping rain are not tear-
shaped
 Extension of Rain
 Drizzle – water droplets with a diameter less than 0.5 millimeters (mm)
 Rain – water droplets with a diameter greater than or equal to 0.5 mm
 The diameter of a raindrop that reaches Earth’s surface is usually no greater
than 6 mm
 The shape of a raindrop is dependent on its size: Diameter

• Almost spherical – raindrops less than 2 mm in diameter

• Surface tension squeezes the drop into a sphere because
spheres have the smallest surface area for their total volume
• Flattened bottom, rounded top – raindrops with diameters bigger than 2 mm
• Larger air pressure on the drop as it falls, flattens the bottom, while lower
air pressure on the sides of the drop allows the sides to expand

1
 Sea Spray

ea Spray

 There are two types:

• Film or jet droplets – bubbles in the ocean
rise to the surface and burst, releasing
water droplets into the air
• Spume droplets – the wind is strong
enough to tear off water particles from the http://www.flickr.com/photos/49827759@N00/98131368/

tops of waves

 How does sea spray impact the earth?

• Once sea spray becomes airborne, the particles scatter radiation and
Fast Fact: transfer heat, momentum, and moisture to and from the atmosphere
Sea salt particles
• If the sea spray evaporates entirely, sea salt particles
make up 90% of the
marine aerosols in the are left in the air
Atmospheric • The particles act as nuclei for clouds and fog to form
Boundary Layer • They impact Earth’s annual heat budget
 Extension of Sea Spray
 1000 micrometers = 1 millimeter  The radius of a circle:

Radius

1 millimeter
OR
1000 micrometers

http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/dropdrag/superimposed.htm

 Radius of film or jet droplets: ranges from approximately 1 to 10

micrometers
 Radius of spume droplets: ranges from approximately 10 to 1000
micrometers
 Low Tide
H H
i i
Gravitational g g
h h
ides Pull
T
i
d
T
i
d
e e
Low Tide
 The regular rise and fall of the ocean waters Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

• Caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, and the rotation of Earth
• The rising of Earth’s surface is called high tide, or flood tide
• The centrifugal force away from the moon leaves the water on the side opposite to the
Moon to form another high tide
• Low tides, or ebb tides, are the portions of the tidal cycle between high tides

 What impacts the time tides occur each day?

Did you know?
• The combination of Earth’s rotation and the Moon’s orbit
Tides do not
actually “rise”, • If the Moon did not rotate around Earth, the tides would
rather Earth rotates occur at the same time every day
into tides
 Extension of Tides
 The rise and fall of the tides is periodic
• Periodic – occurring in regular cycles
 There are three types of tides:
• Semidiurnal Tides:
• Produce two high tides and two low
tides during a 24 hour period (1 day) 4
• Diurnal Tides:
• Produce one high tide and one low
tide during a 24 hour period (1 day)
• Mixed Tides:
• Produce two high tides and two low
tides during a 24 hour period (1 day)
• There are great differences between the 4
heights of the high tides and the low tides
 To the right are tide curves for the three
common types of tides
• Curves show tidal patterns during a 48 hour
period (2 days) at various locations around
North America
4
  Vertical movement of water from
pwelling the ocean floor up to the surface

 Coastal Upwelling - occurs when winds blow with the shore on the left
• Surface water is pushed away from the beach and deep, nutrient-rich, cold ocean
water rises in its place
 Coastal Downwelling - when winds blow with the shore on the right
• Surface water is pushed toward the beach, forced downward, and then out to sea

Coastal Upwelling and Downwelling in the Northern Hemisphere

Wind out of the North Wind out of the South

Upwelling Downwelling

 Northern Hemisphere: ocean water moves 90° to right of wind

 Southern Hemisphere: ocean water moves 90° to left of wind
 ector Wind Stress

 The horizontal force per area

of wind on the ocean surface
 Vector wind stress impacts:
• Generation of waves
• Movement of surface
currents

 How does vector wind stress

impact air-sea interaction?
• Through wind stress the
atmosphere is able to
transfer momentum to the
ocean http://www.pfeg.noaa.gov/products/las/sample_gifs.html
 Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

aves
 As wind passes over the water, friction between
the air and the water causes the water to ripple
 Characteristics of waves: Did you know?
• Period – time for two crests or troughs to pass a A wave does not
point move water, only
• Wave frequency – number of waves that pass a energy moves
point in one second forward

 What determines the size of waves?

• How fast the wind is blowing
• How far the wind blows
• How long the wind blows

20
 Extension of Waves
 As a wave passes, water particles lift up, move
forward with the wave’s crest, and then sink down
and move backward with the wave’s trough
 When water particles in the trough hit the sand,
friction causes them to slow down, but the water
particles in the crest do not slow down
 When the water in the crest gets too far ahead
for the trough to be able to support it, a breaker
forms, which is a wave where the crest crashes
20
on top of the trough

Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art
 Image from Microsoft
Office Clip Art

Heat Flu
 The passing of heat through
or across a surface The mean annual radiation and heat balance of Earth
• The heat flux within shallow
layers is much greater than
within deep layers of the
ocean

 Example of the importance

of heat flux to Earth:
• Earth must maintain an
annual balance between the
amount of heat absorbed by
-2 16
its surface and released W m (watts per square meter) is the unit used to represent
the power per square area that comes from the sun
back into the atmosphere
 Oceanograph
Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art

 Scientific study and exploration of the oceans

• Dependent on physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and meteorology
• Covers a wide range of topics:
• currents, waves, tides, marine organisms, ocean floor, etc.
 Oceanographers must be able to apply knowledge from various branches of
study to truly understand and be able to explain the behavior of the ocean
environment

 Is there more than one type of oceanography?

• Yes
• Biological oceanography (Marine biology) – study of marine
plants and animals
• Chemical oceanography – study of the chemistry of the ocean
and ocean floor
• Geological oceanography – study of the ocean floor
• Physical oceanography – study of ocean processes and air-sea
Image from Microsoft Office Clip Art interactions
 Copepod

ooplankton
 Micro- or macroscopic animals that drift in the ocean http://www.flickr.com/photos/kervinchong/
 Zooplankton can live at any ocean depth 498036786/

 In comparison to any other animal, zooplankton have the greatest quantity

spread over the largest area
• Typically found near large quantities of phytoplankton
• Concentrated in areas of upwelling

Zooplankton

 Why are zooplankton important?

• They are a stable source of food
for many larger animals

http://www.flickr.com/photos/paulgalipeau/834103339/
 References
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California: Thomson.
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 Extension of References
11. Mueller, J. A. & Veron, F. (2006). A LaGrangian Turbulent Transport Model of Evolving
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Sea and Atmosphere. (Vol. P4.3)
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Chicago: World Book, Inc.
13. Nystuen, J. (2000, June 14). Listening to Raindrops: Using Underwater Microphones to
Measure Ocean Rainfall. NASA. Retrieved June 7, 2007, from
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/Rain/
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from http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/ocean/default.htm
15. Program 1: The Who? What? Where? How? And Why’s? of Plankton. (1997, Fall).
Project Oceanography. Retrieved July 13, 2007, from http://www.marine.usf.edu/
pjocean/packets/

16. Sample, S. (2005, June 21). Climate Variability. NASA. Retrieved June 8, 2007, from
http://science.hq.nasa.gov/oceans/system/climate.html
17. Sample, S. (2005, June 21). Sea Surface Temperature. NASA. Retrieved June 26,
2007, from http://science.hq.nasa.gov/oceans/physical/SST.html
18. Sample, S. (2005, June 21). The Water Cycle. NASA. Retrieved June 8, 2007, from
http://science.hq.nasa.gov/oceans/system/water.html
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 Extension of References
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7, 2007, from http://www.mos.org/oceans/motion/currents.html
25. Water on the Move: Wind and Waves. (1998). Science Learning Network. Retrieved
June 7, 2007, from http://www.mos.org/oceans/motion/wind.html

LEEANNE HAZZARD is a senior

at Elizabethtown College, where
she is working on her Secondary
Mathematics certification.
Leeanne created this ABC’s to
Oceanography booklet as part of
the Oceanography Outreach Created by Leeanne Hazzard & Fabrice Veron, 2007
Project she designed during a Air-Sea Interaction Laboratory
College of Marine and Earth Studies
REU Summer Internship.
University of Delaware