Dr.Shridhar D.

H
MA.,PhD.,K-SET.,TET., Dip in Gandhi,
Ambedkar,Basava Studies.,B.Ed.

Faculty of MA-
School of
Rural Development and Panchayat Raj
Public Administration
Karnataka State Rural Development and
Panchayat Raj
University,Gadag
• What is mean by Society
• A society is a system which people live
together in organized communities having
shared customs, law, organization and living in
a particular region
• A Society can be understood as a social
system. As a social system has many parts
(family, religion, economy, science), that are
interdependent, giving the society a structure
• The term "society" which came from the Latin
word societas generally designates persons
belonging to a specific in-group.
• According to MacIver, “Society is a system of
usages and procedures, of authority and
mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions,
of controls of human behaviour and of
liberties. This ever-changing complex system
we call society. It is the web of social
relationships”.
• According to Giddings, “Society is the union
itself, the organisation, the sum of formal
relations in which associating individuals are
bound together”.
 S RURAL SOCIETY MEANING AND
CHARTACTERSTICS
• INTRODUCTION
The term “rural society” is used almost
interchangeable with terms like ,villages,
countryside or folk society.

• In sociological literature most commonly

used term is the village.
• In India , a community having a population of
less than 5oo persons per square kilometer ,
3/4th population is engaged in primary
occupation ,namely agriculture , has a village
panchayat , is classified as village for
administrative purposes.
 MEANING
• For sociologists , the term „rural society‟
implies the following
• It is a small society , meaning thereby that it
has a small population and extends over a
shorter physical area.
• Density of rural population is very low and it
may be clustered according to the criteria of
social status
• It is an agrarian society
• It is marked by traditional moral
customs(mores) and folkways. It preserves the
traditional culture
• DUBE , LEWIS . SRINIVAS ,MARROIT ,BAILEY ,
GOUGH , BERREMAN ,EPSTEIN ,ANDRE
BETEILLE , T.K. OOMEN , K.L. SHARMA etc ARE
SOME SOCIOLOGISTS AND ANTHROPOLOGISTS
WHO HAVE STUDIED INDIAN VILLAGES.
 CHARACTERISTICS
• Closely associated with nature
• Agriculture dominated economy
• Small size of community
• Greater homogeneity of population
• Social differentiation /social stratification
• Social mobility
• Social control
• Leadership pattern
• Social solidarity
 INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES
• RURAL FAMILY
Family is the oldest ,most prevalent and
enduring social institution everywhere in the
world.
• It plays a decisive role in the material and cultural
life of the rural aggregate
• Rural society is marked by patriarchal joint family
where the grandfather is the patriarch. The
grandmother is his deputy
 JOINT FAMILY
• It is the old and universal institution of India.
• According to Mandelbaum “it consists typically of a
set of men , related as fathers and sons or brothers ,
together with their wives and children. It is generally
a unit of consumption and a unit of production. The
property is held in common under the trusteeship of
the eldest male member. All the members of the
joint family are fed from the common kitchen and
have a single purse.”
• It include four or more generations
 CHARACTERISTICS
• Greater homogeneity
• Based on peasant household
• Greater discipline
• Greater interdependence
• Dominance of family ego
• Authority of father
• Filial Ana fraternal solidarity
• Hierarchy in family roles
• Close participation in various activities.
 FUNCTIONS OF RURAL FAMILY
• SOCIAL
• POLITICAL
• ECONOMIC
• RELIGIOUS
• CULTURAL
• EDUCATIONAL
 CHANGING TRENDS IN RURAL FAMILY
• There is a change in both structure and functions of the rural
family.
• Traditional joint families are giving way to nuclear households.
• Position of women in rural family has improved
• The cementing bond of family is being changed from
consanguinity to conjugality.
• The basis of rural family relationship is shifting from status to
contract. CHANGING TRENDS IN RURAL FAMILY
• The family is being transformed from a unit of production into
a unit of consumption
• Feminism ,too, is gradually dropping off. CHANGING
 Characteristics of Societyಸೊಸೈಟಿಯ
ಗುಣಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳು

1) Society is a largest human group

ಸಮಾಜವು ಒಂದು ದೊಡ್ಡ ಮಾನವ ಗುಂಪು
2) It satisfies the needs of its member’s

ಇದು ಅದರ ಸದಸ್ಯರ ಅಗತ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ತೃಪ್ತಿಪಡಿಸುತ್ತದೆ.

 3) One of the characteristic of society is
having sense of belonging and cooperation.
It is more or less permanent association

• ಸಮಾಜದ ವಿಶಿಷ್ಟತೆಯು ಒಂದುಗೂಡಿರುವ ಮತ್ತು

ಸಹಕಾರದ ಅರ್ಥವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿದೆ. ಇದು ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಅಥವಾ
ಕಡಿಮೆ ಶಾಶ್ವತ ಸಂಬಂಧ ಹೊಂದಿದೆ
 
4) It is abstract (Because social relationships can
be felt and imagined and cannot be seen).

• ಇದು ಅಮೂರ್ತವಾಗಿದೆ (ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಸಂಬಂಧಗಳು

ಭಾವನೆ ಮತ್ತು ಕಲ್ಪನೆ ಮತ್ತು ಕಾಣಿಸುವುದಿಲ್ಲ).
5) Everyone in society is dependent upon every
other member.

• ಸಮಾಜದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರತಿಯೊಬ್ಬರೂ ಇತರ ಸದಸ್ಯರ ಮೇಲೆ

ಅವಲಂಬಿತರಾಗಿದ್ದಾರೆ. 
6)It should be organized i.e. will be having
division of labor.

ಇದನ್ನು ಸಂಘಟಿಸಬೇಕಾಗಿದೆ ಅಂದರೆ ಅಂದರೆ

ಕಾರ್ಮಿಕರ ವಿಭಾಗವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿರುತ್ತದೆ.
7)It will be having likeness and differences.
Due to these differences, variety in human
behaviors and division of labor and
specialization of roles is there.

ಇದು ಹೋಲಿಕೆ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯತ್ಯಾಸಗಳನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಈ

ಭಿನ್ನಾಭಿಪ್ರಾಯಗಳ ಕಾರಣದಿಂದಾಗಿ, ಮಾನವ
ನಡವಳಿಕೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿನ ವಿಭಿನ್ನತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಕಾರ್ಮಿಕರ ವಿಭಜನೆ
ಮತ್ತು ಪಾತ್ರಗಳ ವಿಶೇಷತೆಗಳು ಇವೆ.
8)There is consciousness of kind." Among the
members of society.

ರೀತಿಯ ಪ್ರಜ್ಞೆ ಇದೆ. "ಸಮಾಜದ ಸದಸ್ಯರಲ್ಲಿ

9) It is always changing

ಇದು ಯಾವಾಗಲೂ ಬದಲಾಗುತ್ತಿದೆ

• It has its own means to survive.
 
• ಬದುಕಲು ಇದು ತನ್ನದೇ ಆದ ವಿಧಾನವನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿದೆ.
10) It is a self-sufficient social system. 
ಇದು ಸ್ವಾವಲಂಬಿ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆಯಾಗಿದೆ.
11)It lasts for a longer period of time than
groups and communities. 

• ಇದು ಗುಂಪುಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಸಮುದಾಯಗಳಿಗಿಂತ

ದೀರ್ಘಕಾಲದವರೆಗೆ ಇರುತ್ತದೆ
12)It will form a social structure through social
institutions i.e. family, education economic, political
and religious institutions. These basic five
institutions are found in all societies of the world.
•
ಇದು ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಗಳ ಮೂಲಕ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ರಚನೆಯನ್ನು
ರೂಪಿಸುತ್ತದೆ ಅಂದರೆ ಕುಟುಂಬ, ಶಿಕ್ಷಣ ಆರ್ಥಿಕ, ರಾಜಕೀಯ
ಮತ್ತು ಧಾರ್ಮಿಕ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಗಳು. ಈ ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಐದು ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಗಳು
ಪ್ರಪಂಚದ ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಸಮಾಜಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಕಂಡುಬರುತ್ತವೆ
13)One of the characteristic of society has its
own culture.
•
ಸಮಾಜದ ವಿಶಿಷ್ಟತೆಯು ತನ್ನದೇ ಆದ ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿಯನ್ನು
ಹೊಂದಿದೆ.
 Indian society ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜ
• India is a vast country and its society is highly
evolved.
• Social life continues in India from the Indus valley
civilization around 2500 BC to the present day.
• During this very long period.
• Indian society has undergone many changes it
assimilated many culture and influence.
• ಭಾರತವು ವಿಶಾಲವಾದ ದೇಶವಾಗಿದೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅದರ
ಸಮಾಜವು ಹೆಚ್ಚು ವಿಕಸನಗೊಂಡಿತು. ಸಿಂಧೂ ಕಣಿವೆ
ನಾಗರಿಕತೆಯಿಂದ ಕ್ರಿ.ಪೂ. 2500 ರಿಂದ ಇಂದಿನವರೆಗೆ
ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಜೀವನವು ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ
ಮುಂದುವರಿಯುತ್ತದೆ. ಈ ದೀರ್ಘ ಅವಧಿಯಲ್ಲಿ.
ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜವು ಹಲವಾರು ಬದಲಾವಣೆಗಳಿಗೆ
ಒಳಗಾಯಿತು, ಅದು ಅನೇಕ ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿಗಳನ್ನು
ಸಂಯೋಜಿಸಿತು ಮತ್ತು ಅನೇಕ ವಿದೇಶಿ ಸಮಾಜಗಳಿಂದ
ಪ್ರಭಾವಿತವಾಯಿತು.
1) Institutionalization: • ಸಾಂಸ್ಥೀಕರಣ  
Indian society is institutionalized in nature in
the form of well developed systems like family,
marriage, Gotra and Caste system.

ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜವು ಕುಟುಂಬದಲ್ಲಿ, ಮದುವೆ, ಗೋತ್ರ

ಮತ್ತು ಜಾತಿ ಪದ್ದತಿಯಂತಹ ಉತ್ತಮ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಪದ್ದತಿಯ
ರೂಪದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರಕೃತಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಸಾಂಸ್ಥೀಕರಣಗೊಂಡಿದೆ
2) Multi-Class:

• Indian society is a multi-class due to several classes

exists in India.
• This classification is based ones birth as well as his
achievements.
• ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ಹಲವಾರು ವರ್ಗಗಳು ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿರುವುದರಿಂದ
ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜವು ಬಹು-ವರ್ಗವಾಗಿದೆ.ಈ ವರ್ಗೀಕರಣವು
ಜನನ ಮತ್ತು ಅವರ ಸಾಧನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಆಧರಿಸಿರುತ್ತದೆ
• 3) Patriarchal system: ಪಿತೃಪ್ರಭುತ್ವದ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ  
• Indian Society is largely a patriarchal society
men status greater status than women in
society.
•
ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜವು ಬಹುಮಟ್ಟಿಗೆ ಪಿತೃಪ್ರಭುತ್ವದ
ಸಮಾಜದ ಸಮಾಜದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಹಿಳೆಯರಿಗಿಂತ ಪುರುಷ
ಸ್ಥಾನಮಾನದ ಉನ್ನತ ಸ್ಥಾನಮಾನವಾಗಿದೆ.
4) Multi-Ethnic society: ಬಹು-ಜನಾಂಗೀಯ ಸಮಾಜ  
• Indian society is multi-ethnic in nature due to
various racial groups co-exists in India. Almost
all the races of the word can be seen in India.
•
ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವಿಧ ಜನಾಂಗೀಯ ಗುಂಪುಗಳು ಸಹ
ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿರುವುದರಿಂದ ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜವು ಬಹು-
ಜನಾಂಗೀಯವಾಗಿದೆ. ಪದದ ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಜನಾಂಗಗಳು
ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ಕಾಣಬಹುದಾಗಿದೆ
• Multi-Religious society: ಮಲ್ಟಿ-ರಿಲಿಜಿಯಸ್ ಸೊಸೈಟಿ  
• Although Hinduism is the major religion in India.
There exist various other religions such as Islam,
Buddism, Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity, Bahai, and
Parsi etc.
•
ಹಿಂದೂ ಧರ್ಮವು ಭಾರತದ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಧರ್ಮವಾಗಿದೆ. ಇಸ್ಲಾಂ
ಧರ್ಮ, ಬದ್ಧತೆ, ಜೈನ ಧರ್ಮ, ಸಿಖ್ ಧರ್ಮ, ಕ್ರಿಶ್ಚಿಯನ್ ಧರ್ಮ,
ಬಹಾಯಿ ಮತ್ತು ಪಾರ್ಸಿ ಮುಂತಾದ ಹಲವು ಧರ್ಮಗಳು
ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿವೆ.
 6) Multi-Lingual society: ಬಹು ಭಾಷಾ ಸಮಾಜ:  
• There exist more than 1600 languages in India,
Major languages are Hindi, Kannada, Tamil,
Talagu, Malayalam, Bengali, Odisa, Assamese
Etc.
• ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ 1600 ಕ್ಕಿಂತಲೂ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಭಾಷೆಗಳು
ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿವೆ, ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು ಹಿಂದಿ, ಕನ್ನಡ,
ತಮಿಳು, ತಾಳಗು, ಮಲಯಾಳಂ, ಬೆಂಗಾಲಿ, ಒಡಿಸಾ,
ಅಸ್ಸಾಮಿ ಇತ್ಯಾದಿ.
• Unity in Diversity: ಅನೇಕತೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಏಕತೆ

• This is an in the rent feature of Indian society. Diversity in India

exists at various levels and in different forms however beneath
this diversity, there is fundamental unity in social institutions and
practices.
•
ಅವರು ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜದ ವೈಶಿಷ್ಟ್ಯವನ್ನು ಬಾಡಿಗೆಗೆ ನೀಡುತ್ತಾರೆ.
ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ವೈವಿಧ್ಯತೆಯು ವಿವಿಧ ಹಂತಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿದೆ ಮತ್ತು ವಿವಿಧ
ವೈವಿಧ್ಯತೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಈ ವೈವಿಧ್ಯತೆಯ ಕೆಳಗಿರುತ್ತದೆ, ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಗಳು ಮತ್ತು
ಆಚರಣೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಏಕತೆ ಇರುತ್ತದೆ.
 
• Assimilative society: ಅಸಿಮಿಲೇಟಿವ್ ಸೊಸೈಟಿ  
• Indian society is assimilatory in nature throughout the
history of India. It absorbed many elements from foreign
cultures. As a result, the socio-cultural life in India still
continues to evolve.
•
ಭಾರತೀಯ ಇತಿಹಾಸವು ಭಾರತದ ಇತಿಹಾಸದುದ್ದಕ್ಕೂ ಪ್ರಕೃತಿಯಲ್ಲಿ
ಸಮಂಜಸವಾಗಿದೆ. ಇದು ವಿದೇಶಿ ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿಗಳಿಂದ ಅನೇಕ ಅಂಶಗಳನ್ನು
ಹೀರಿಕೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತದೆ. ಇದರ ಪರಿಣಾಮವಾಗಿ, ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿನ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ-
ಸಾಂಸ್ಕೃತಿಕ ಜೀವನವು ಇನ್ನೂ ವಿಕಸನಗೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತಿದೆ.
•  
• Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity:
•
ಸಾಂಪ್ರದಾಯಿಕತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಆಧುನಿಕತೆಯ ಸಹ-ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವ
•  
• Traditionalism is the uploading or maintenance of tradition and its values,
especially so as to resist change.
• Where as the modernity refers to the questionoring or rejection of
Tradition. Because inevitable social, scientific and technological progress
and human perfectibility rationalization and professionalization.
• These two ways of thinking coexists in India Due to the spread of education
and technological advances.
• Modern thinking among Indians increased however. The family life is still
based on traditional values and beliefs
• ಸಾಂಪ್ರದಾಯಿಕತೆಯು ಸಂಪ್ರದಾಯದ ಅಪ್ಲೋಡ್ ಅಥವಾ ನಿರ್ವಹಣೆ
ಮತ್ತು ಅದರ ಮೌಲ್ಯಗಳು, ಅದರಲ್ಲೂ ವಿಶೇಷವಾಗಿ
ಬದಲಾವಣೆಯನ್ನು ವಿರೋಧಿಸಲು.ಆಧುನಿಕತೆಯು ಸಂಪ್ರದಾಯದ
ಪ್ರಶ್ನಾವಳಿ ಅಥವಾ ತಿರಸ್ಕಾರವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ಏಕೆಂದರೆ
ಅನಿವಾರ್ಯ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ, ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ಮತ್ತು ತಾಂತ್ರಿಕ ಪ್ರಗತಿ ಮತ್ತು
ಮಾನವನ ಪರಿಪೂರ್ಣತೆ ತರ್ಕಬದ್ಧಗೊಳಿಸುವಿಕೆ ಮತ್ತು ವೃತ್ತಿಪರತ
ೆ.ಶಿಕ್ಷಣ ಮತ್ತು ತಾಂತ್ರಿಕ ಪ್ರಗತಿಗಳ ಹರಡುವಿಕೆಯ ಕಾರಣದಿಂದ
ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ಆಲೋಚಿಸುವ ಈ ಎರಡು ವಿಧಾನಗಳು.ಆದಾಗ್ಯೂ
ಭಾರತೀಯರಲ್ಲಿ ಆಧುನಿಕ ಚಿಂತನೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿದೆ. ಕುಟುಂಬ ಜೀವನವು
ಸಾಂಪ್ರದಾಯಿಕ ಮೌಲ್ಯಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ನಂಬಿಕೆಗಳನ್ನು ಆಧರಿಸಿದೆ
• ) Balance between spiritualism and materialism:
• ಆಧ್ಯಾತ್ಮ ಮತ್ತು ಭೌತಿಕತೆ ನಡುವೆ ಸಮತೋಲನ  
• Spiritualism’s main focus is to promote and individual’s personal experience
with good.
• Whereas the materialism is a tendency to consider material possessions and
physical comfort as more important than spiritual value.
• India is considered as the spiritual center of the word. There are many great
bhakti saints tending’s among Indian’s are asks a quite visible.
•
ಆಧ್ಯಾತ್ಮಿಕತೆಯ ಮುಖ್ಯ ಗಮನವು ಉತ್ತೇಜಿಸುವುದು ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಯ ವೈಯಕ್ತಿಕ ಅನುಭವವು
ಒಳ್ಳೆಯದು. ವಸ್ತುಗಳ ಭೌತಿಕತೆ ಮತ್ತು ದೈಹಿಕ ಆರಾಮವನ್ನು ಆಧ್ಯಾತ್ಮಿಕ ಮೌಲ್ಯಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು
ಮಹತ್ವದ್ದಾಗಿ ಪರಿಗಣಿಸುವ ಪ್ರವೃತ್ತಿಯು ಭೌತಿಕತೆಯಾಗಿದೆ. ಭಾರತವನ್ನು ಪದದ ಆಧ್ಯಾತ್ಮಿಕ
ಕೇಂದ್ರವೆಂದು ಪರಿಗಣಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ. ಭಾರತೀಯರ ಪೈಕಿ ಅನೇಕ ಮಹಾನ್ ಭಕ್ತಿ ಸಂತರನ್ನು
ಕಾಣುವಂತಿದೆ.
• Balance between Individualism and collectivism :
•
ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಗತತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಸಾಮೂಹಿಕತೆಯ ನಡುವಿನ ಸಮತೋಲನ
•  
• Individualism is a moral political or social outlook that stresses human
independence and the Importance of insider self-reliance and liberty where
the collectivisms is practice of giving a group priority over each individualism
and collectivism in Indian society.
•
ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿತ್ವವು ನೈತಿಕ ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಅಥವಾ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ದೃಷ್ಟಿಕೋನವಾಗಿದ್ದು, ಮಾನವ ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯ
ಮತ್ತು ಇಂಡಿಯಡ್ಯುರ್ ಸ್ವಾವಲಂಬನೆ ಮತ್ತು ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯದ ಮಹತ್ವವನ್ನು ಸಂಗ್ರಹಿಸುತ್ತದೆ, ಅಲ್ಲಿ
ಸಂಪ್ರದಾಯವಾದಿಗಳು ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರತಿಯೊಂದು ವ್ಯಕ್ತಿಗತವಾದಿ ಮತ್ತು
ಸಂಯೋಗದ ಮೇಲೆ ಗುಂಪಿನ ಆದ್ಯತೆಯನ್ನು ನೀಡುತ್ತಾರೆ.
•  
• Elements of stress and strain : ಒತ್ತಡ ಮತ್ತು ಒತ್ತಡದ
ಅಂಶಗಳು  
• Due to a rapidly growing population in Indian and
unfulfilled aspirations of younger generations,
communal conflicts criminal activities can also be
witnessed in India.
•
ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ವೇಗವಾಗಿ ಬೆಳೆಯುತ್ತಿರುವ ಜನಸಂಖ್ಯೆ ಮತ್ತು ಕಿರಿಯ
ಪೀಳಿಗೆಯ ಅಪೂರ್ಣ ಆಕಾಂಕ್ಷೆಗಳಿಂದಾಗಿ, ಕೋಮು ಸಂಘರ್ಷದ
ಅಪರಾಧ ಚಟುವಟಿಕೆಗಳನ್ನು ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಹ ವೀಕ್ಷಿಸಬಹುದು.
• ) Blood and kinship ties: ರಕ್ತ ಮತ್ತು ರಕ್ತಸಂಬಂಧ
ಸಂಬಂಧಗಳು  
• Blood relations and kinship ties injury a place of
great signification in Indian society.
•  
•  
• ರಕ್ತ ಸಂಬಂಧಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ರಕ್ತಸಂಬಂಧದ ಸಂಬಂಧಗಳು
ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಮಾಜದಲ್ಲಿ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಸಂಕೇತಗಳ ಸ್ಥಳವಾಗಿದೆ.  
•  
•Thank you
 RURAL SOCIETY MEANING AND
CHARTACTERSTICS
• INTRODUCTION
The term “rural society” is used almost
interchangeable with terms like ,villages,
countryside or folk society.

• In sociological literature most commonly

used term is the village
• It is an agrarian society

• It is marked by traditional moral

customs(mores) and folkways

• It preserves the traditional culture

 Meaning of Rural Sociology:

• India is basically a land of villages.

Rural sociology is the sociology of the village
or village society.
• It is a branch of sociology which studies rural
society.
• Rural sociology studies the relations of the
people who live in the villages.
 Objectives
• The village society is considered as the
backbone of Indian society.
• Millions of money has been spent on the
development of villages.
• The basic aim of the study of rural sociology is
to make the village people self sufficient and
also link them with the wider society at
regional and national levels.
 Definition of Rural Sociology:

• F. S. Chapin
The sociology of rural life is a study of rural population, rural social
organization and the rural social processes operative in rural society.
T. L. Smith
“ Such sociological facts and principles as are derived from the study
of rural social relationships may be referred to as rural sociology.” —
A.R. Desai
The prime objective of rural sociology should be to make a scientific,
systematic and comprehensive study of the rural social organization
of its structure, functions and objective tendencies of development
and on the basis of such study, to discover the laws of its
development.” —
 Sanderson
• "Rural sociology is the sociology of life in the rural
environment.” —

The above definitions have given a clear cut Idea about

rural sociology.
The definitions no doubt, include the theoretical as well as
applied aspect of rural sociology.
Rural sociology clarifies the laws of rural social life and
points out the necessary conditions of its progress.
 Nature of Rural Sociology:

• rural sociology is treated as a part of sociology

• it is also considered as a social science.
• rural sociology is a science.
• As a result of which the study becomes universally applicable.

Generally the term ‘Nature’ refers to essential qualities or characteristic

features of a phenomenon
 Characteristics of Rural Sociology:

• Rural sociology is of recent origin and a very new discipline.

Here sociological principles are applied for studying rural
society.
• Rural sociology is multi-dimensional in character.
• Rural sociology is scientific and systematic in character.
• It has acquired an inter-disciplinary status over a period of
time.
• It emphasizes on micro studies.
 Scope of Rural Sociology
• Rural sociology is a science or an art.
• Whether rural sociology is a scientific subject
matter or special subject matter or it is a
synthesis of different social sciences.
• Rural sociology deals with only village
community or includes urban communities.
• Rural sociology Includes only the formulation
of different laws or includes Follow-up action.
 Important Scope of Rural Sociology

• Some of the important scope of Rural

Sociology are as follows:
• As a scientist, rural sociologist is keenly
interested in understanding rural people. He is
also equally interested in the betterment of
rural life. He collects facts concerning rural life
and tries to interpret them in a meaningful
way keeping rural development in view.
• Rural Community:
• To quote Sanderson, “A rural community consists of the social
interaction of the people and their institutions in the local area
in which they live…….” Rural Sociology is concerned with the
study of the characteristics, special features and ecology of the
village community.
• Rural Social Structure:
Social structure is the most important basis of social life. Rural
Sociology studies the various components of rural social
structure such as village community, family, caste etc. It also
analyses the effect of religion, customs and tradition on rural
social structure
• Rural Social Institutions:
• Social, economic, political, educational and religious institutions
in the context of rural society constitute the subject matter of
rural sociology. Rural Sociology also analyses the sociological
significance of these
• Rural Culture:
• Culture is the total way of life shared by members of a society. It
can be conceived of as a tool kit that provides us with the ideas
and technology to deal with the common problems of everyday
life. Rural Sociology studies the various aspects of the cultural
life of the ruralites such as rural social customs, beliefs, values,
attitudes, drives and interests.
• . Rural Social Change:
• Consequent upon the forces of industrialization, urbanization,
westernization, sanskritization and modernization, rural society is
undergoing profound changes. Rural Sociology studies the effect of
these processes of social change on rural life.
• . Rural Development Programmes:
• Rural Sociology evaluates the impact of various rural
development programmes such as Community Development
Programme, Integrated Rural Development Programme etc. It
also studies the effect of various social legislation measures on
the life of the ruralites.
• Agricultural Transformation:
An important area of study for Rural Sociology is the process of
diffusion and adoption of agricultural technology among the rural
farmers and modernization of rural life as a result of improvement in
the farming technology.
• Rural Demography:
• Demography is pre-eminently concerned with the statistical
study of the size, distribution and growth of population
over a specific period of time. Rural Sociology studies the
causes of the growth of population and its impact on rural
development, rural to urban and rural to rural migration.
• Rural-Urban differences:
• All rural sociologists recognize that the social life of the community is
divided into two distinct segments, rural and urban. Though these
segments interact among themselves, each is sufficiently distinct from
the other. Study of rural-urban differences, therefore, constitutes an
important aspect of the scope of rural sociology.

• Social processes refer to the repetitive forms of behaviour

which are commonly found in social life. Rural Sociology
studies the various social processes such as cooperation,
accommodation, assimilation, competition – and conflict
which occur among individuals or groups in the rural context.
• Rural reconstruction:
• Rural reconstruction signifies radical changes in village life in
general and renovation or improvement in the economic system
in particular. Most of the scholars today agree that the aim of
rural sociologist is to suggest concrete methods for rural
reconstruction so that all round development of village life
becomes possible
• Rural religion:
• Religion is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred
things that unites believers into a moral community. Rural
Sociology studies the characteristics of religion in the rural
context and its impact on the rural its impact on the ruralites.
• Rural Politics:
• Consequent upon the process of modernization and change in the structure
and functions of the Panchayati Raj system, the pattern of rural leadership
has undergone considerable changes. Rural Sociology deals with rural
leadership and analyses the working of village lobby and caste in the context
of local/state/national level politics.
• Rural social control:
• Social control consists of the forces and processes that encourage
conformity, including self- control, informal control and formal
control. Rural Sociology employs informal means of social control
in the form of family, neighbourhood, praise, blame, religion,
customs, folkways, mores etc. in regulating the behaviour of the
ruralites.
• Village development programmes:
• Study of rural development programmes forms an interesting
theme of the scope of rural sociology. The objective of these
programmes is to bring about rural welfare on a holistic note.
Secondly, the programmes make the ruralites active agents in
the task of nation-building.

• Environmental crisis:
• Rural Sociology also deals with environmental decay and
erosion of ecology.
 Importance and Significance of Rural Sociology:

• After Independence it is very much necessary for our country to have a

systematic study of the rural social organization, its structure, function and
evolution

• The practical value of the study of rural sociology is widely recognized today.

• Rural sociology which aims at providing systematic and scientific approach

to rural problems and life is assuming great significance because in India
rural society after independence has acquired new significance.

• India is a classic land of agriculture; the economic foundation of village

community centers around agriculture.

• It is with the help of rural sociology that it can be possible to find out what
are the causes of break-up of the self-sufficiency of the village community.
• Rural sociology presents a scientific picture of rural life.
Villages are important for many reasons because they are the
springs to feed urban areas. So rural sociology is an important
subject and can be put under the following head.

• In every part of the world, the rural population is more than

the urban population.

• It gives us complete knowledge of village life. The first unit of

development in a country is the village and the village is the
center of culture of any country.
• It can help in organizing the disorganized rural structure.

• It lays stress on the importance of increasing the quantity and

quality of production which improve the economic status of rural 
society.

• It helps in providing technology and systematic knowledge and

reforms in farm production,

• It examines the social pathological problems and based on social

methodology. It suggests ways for improving the village conditions.
• It encourages development of various plans for any rural
development programmers. For making progress in the rural 
society, work is carried out according to these plans.

• It develops a relationship between the village and industries.

• It lays stress on education for the solution of rural problems.

• community development workers in
• It helps change agents or knowing the felt needs of the 
society, and then they can help villages in satisfying their
needs
• Social change
• Industries and Urban
• Rural Problems
 Origin and Development of Rural Sociology :

• Rural sociology is relatively novel branch of sociology.

• It Is originated in the United States of America in the form of systematic
science in the year 1820.
• It has taken more than half a century to become established as a distinct
academic need or professional study.
• In the year 1907, rural sociology seems to be started its growth. At that
time, American President Roosevelt emphasized on the study of rural
sociology and rural social problem.
• In 1911, a Rural Sociology Department was established in American
Sociological Society.
 In India
• In India, only after the independence, literature on rural society has been on the
increase. After independence, during the first five-year plan, strategies were
made for the upliftment of the condition of rural people.

• In the year 1955, prominent village studies by famous sociologists were brought
out in India. It was suggested that there was a need of rural reconstruction and
welfare. Therefore community development programmes came into the scene.
Planning Commission has introduced several projects, land reforms, co-
operative movement, five-year plans, Panchayat Raj etc.

• These plans and programmes have contributed a lot towards the development of
rural sociology in India. Different sociologists have made their original
contributions in the field of rural sociology in India. Among them are Dr. D. N.
Majumdar, Prof. N. K. Bose, Prof. M.N. Srinivas, S. C. Dube etc. are the pioneers.
• Before independence, also, many studies were conducted
about village life in India.
• In 1926, Royal Commission on Agriculture was set up.
• World war time agrarian crisis and began to draw the
attention of the scholars towards rural India.
• George Keating’s and Harold Mann in Bombay,
• Gilbert Slater in Madras and
• E.V. Lucas in Punjab initiated intensive studies of particular
villages.
 Structure and Functions of Rural Society: in
India
Rural Structure: The village is the unit of the rural society.
Every society has certain units.
It is these units that form the social set up or social structure.
These units are inter-related and through their study, it is possible
to study the behavior patterns of the society. particularly the
Indian Rural Society.
In Indian Rural Society, different villages are the units and they
have geographical, moral, traditional, different culture and other
types of structures.

For the proper study of the Indian Rural Society, the units that
from the social structure have to be studied.
• Units of Rural Social Structure:
we have just now seen that the villages form the units of the Rural Society.
These villages have their own structure and Functions
The structure formed out of the following units:-

• If scientific and proper study of the Indian social structure is to be made,

these units have to be studied in detail.

Let us taken them up one by one………..

The family:

• Family is the basic unit of Indian social structure.

It occupied an important place in the Rural Society.
Apart from performing various basic and important tasks, the
family also brings about socialization social control and also
performs various basic and important tasks; economic
activities also Political activity.
• It is the agency that controls the religion activities particularly
in the Rural Society.
• Family is the oldest ,most prevalent and enduring social
institution everywhere in the world.
 It is the old institution of India.
1) JOINT FAMILY
“it consists typically of a set of men , related as fathers and
sons or brothers , together with their wives and children.

It is generally a unit of consumption and a unit of production.

The property is held in common under the trusteeship of the

eldest male member.
All the members of the joint family are fed from the common
kitchen and have a single purse.”

It include four or more generations.

a) Patriarchal family structure, b) joint family system,
c) extended family structure
CHARACTERISTICS Family
Greater homogeneity
Based on peasant household
Greater discipline
Greater interdependence
Dominance of family ego
Authority of father
Filial Ana fraternal solidarity
Hierarchy in family roles
Close participation in various activities.
 FUNCTIONS OF RURAL FAMILY

SOCIAL
POLITICAL
ECONOMIC
RELIGIOUS
CULTURAL
EDUCATIONAL
 CHANGING TRENDS IN RURAL FAMILY

• There is a change in both structure and functions of the rural family.

• Traditional joint families are giving way to nuclear households.

• Position of women in rural family has improved

• The basis of rural family relationship is shifting from status to contract.

CHANGING TRENDS IN RURAL FAMILY

• The family is being transformed from a unit of production into a unit of

consumption
2) Caste-System:

• The second unit of the social organization of social structure

of the Rural Society in the Caste System.

• Through the institution, the functions status, occupation role

and social position are determined.
• In fact it is an inverse system or reverse system or traditions.
• The caste system is based on endogamy and sometimes has
common economic position or linkage.
• It is a perverts from of old economic classification.
The following extract throws light on the origin of the Indian
Caste System.
The origin of Indian caste sometimes is traced from the
penetration of the Aryans, who devised the system for the
division of labor in their society.
The traditional divisions have long since been complicated
over laid by innumerable sub-division into multitude of
several thousands different caste which marred the social
structure of India.
• It clearly shown that Indian caste system is the result of
different caste units. There is social stratification on the Rural
Society which gives birth the caste-system.
The caste system is based on certain customs and traditions.
As a result of those customs and tradition various factors are
determined, which in their form determine the Caste System
as such is an endogamous group.
Normally it has the following characteristics:-
1) Limited to the persons born within that caste.
2) Endogamous group,
3) Determined occupation….Ext……
 Sub-caste

• A sub-caste is considered a smaller unit within a caste. In the village

setting
• usually we find that there is only one sub-caste living there. A larger
number
• of sub-castes indicate the late arrivals to a village. Thus for all practical
purposes
• a sub-caste represents the caste in the village. In the wider setting of a
region,
• however, we find many sub-castes. One example from Maharashtra is of
• kumbhar (potters). There are several groups among them; those who tap
the
• clay, those who use the large wheel, those who use the small wheel
 Sub-caste

• A sub-caste is considered a smaller unit within a caste. In the village

setting
• usually we find that there is only one sub-caste living there. A larger
number
• of sub-castes indicate the late arrivals to a village. Thus for all practical
purposes
• a sub-caste represents the caste in the village. In the wider setting of a
region,
• however, we find many sub-castes. One example from Maharashtra is of
• kumbhar (potters). There are several groups among them; those who tap
the
• clay, those who use the large wheel, those who use the small wheel
Normally its have the following characteristics:-

• That are indented at helping the villagers.

• Maintaining the religious customs and traditions.
• Enhancing Practices in Rural Society.
Controlling of the People.
Finally,,
All these Characters play a vital role in determining the
internal organization and working of the villagers and village
life.
 4) Religion and religious organization

• Like caste, family internal organization etc, religion is an

important unit of the village social structure of organization.

• In fact religion means worship of the super natural power.

This super natural power means god and other gods and
deities, worship of supernatural power and the ditties form an
important part of village life. Villages have there own gods
and deities.
5) Economic system:

• Economic system has now come to occupy an important

place in every social structure. In fact economic system
determines not only the social structure but various other
things.
• It includes the means and the system of production system
of distribution, sharing of profit etc, according to Raymond
forth; social and economic activities are inter-related have
a mutual relationship.
• They are interring dependent. In fact economic system very
much determines the social structure. According to
economic conditions the activities of a man are
determined. This is true of the village society as well.
 Political System in Rural Society
• Every village has its own organizational set up,
authority and sanctions.
• It has its growing body, the panchayat, based
on local tradition since long, but now
constituted on a regular basis according to
provisions of Panchayat Raj.
 The internal organization:

• This internal organization governs and determines the

social and individual life of the people living in a
particular village.
• Normally every village has a Panchayat and its head; it
is elected with the consent of almost all the adult
members of the village.
• Such as revenue, law and order etc, generally there is
a village Panchayat, a village Nyay Panchayat,
Panchayat of different castes and certain other social,
religious and political group’s voluntary groups.
 Agriculture Sector in Rural Society
• Indian rural society is predominantly based on
agriculture.
• Possession of land carries with it social and prestige
value, besides being considered as an economic asset.
• In many villages, the land is mostly distributed between
two or more castes, or among a few families, or between
one big land owner and the rest of the community.
• Landless labourers and tenants constitute a considerable
part of the population depending on agriculture.
Difference Rural Urban
Occupation Totality of cultivators and their Totality of people engaged
families principally in manufacturing, trade,
commerce, profession and non-
agricultural occupation.
Environment Environment Direct relationship Predominance of man-made
with nature environment. Greater isolation
from nature.

Size of Rurality and size of community are Urbanity and size of community is
community not correlated positively correlated.
population. More Homogeneity (diversity) More Heterogeneity (more
diversity)
Culture 1. conservative and tradition Free from conservation and
bound tradition
2. Guided by superstitions and Free from superstitions and
age old customs. They do not customs. They are influenced by
accept importance of scientific the scientific inventions which
functions. bring about changes in every day
life
Social stratification
(Hierarchy)
Social mobility (Moving Frwd) 1. Lack social mobility. People do
Systems of interaction
(Process)
1. Has the traditional system of
stratifications.
2. Status is determined by birth
3. Stratification is more or less
static. It does not change
4. Difference between the high
and low is less.
not change their place,
occupation, religion, political
view etc
2. Wards generally carries the
occupation of parents and the
social status also thus remains
more or less same
3. Occupation is determined by
tradition & customs
1. Less contact per man
2. Narrow area of interaction
The society is divided into
different strata on the basis
economic, social, political,
educational and other factor
Status is not determined by
But on the economic, social,
political, educational and oth
consideration.
It changes with the changes
values. (e.g) A person who is
now may become poor tomo
So the status shall change.
More
Have a lot of social mobility
Occupation of wards is not
necessary that of the parents
Occupation differs according
Numerous Contact
Wide area of contact
Social control 1. Informal because of size of
community
2. It is the primary institutions like
family & neighborhood that
control life and the society
Social change The process of social change takes
place at a very slow rate because of
little competition
Social 1. More tolerance because
tolerance and a. People do not face the new
family situation
domination b. There is cultural uniformity
c. Lack of variety (Neither different
castes nor religions)
2. Family is the most dominant
institution
Status of 1. Inferior to men
women 2. Role confined to house
3. Live with serious restrictions.
They do not enjoy full freedom
Neighborhood 1. Have important place
environment 2. Rural life is based on co-
operation and mutual goodwill.
That is why neighborhood is
important
More formal because of more laws
Primary institutions have social
control. There are secondary
institutions like economic and other
institutions that control social life.
Social change is fast because there is a
good deal of competition
1. Less More tolerance because
People often face new situation
b. Cultural Variety Seen
c.Full of verities
2. Apart from family other institution
like economy dominates
On par with men
Free to take part in out-door activities
On par with men enjoy a good deal of
freedom
Not important
People have fairly convenient life.
People belong to different
communities, castes and places and so
no institutions like neighborhood is
Leaders Based on personal characters characters
More impersonal

Solidarity Stronger, informal Less predominant

(Inclusive) )

Income Less More

Sense of Less
belongingness More
 Agrarian Classes
• ‘Agrarian’ means anything related to land, its management or
distribution.
• Agricultural land is the single most important resource and
form of property in rural society. But it is not equally
distributed among people living in a particular village or
region.
• Agrarian refers to Structure or distribution of land holdings
and tenure system.
• Land is the most imp Productive resource in rural areas
• Land and caste are linked ,
• usually dominant and upper castes had control over the land.
 Agrarian Class Structure
• Agrarian structure involves the social, economic and technical
elements that affect production in the agricultural sector.
These factors are used to measure the productivity level of
farmers, the distribution of their income and the social
position of the rural population.

ಕೃಷಿ ರಚನೆ. ... ಕೃಷಿ ರಚನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕೃಷಿ ಕ್ಷೇತ್ರದ ಉತ್ಪಾದನೆಯ ಮೇಲೆ ಪರಿಣಾಮ ಬೀರುವ
ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ, ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ಮತ್ತು ತಾಂತ್ರಿಕ ಅಂಶಗಳನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ರೈತರ ಉತ್ಪಾದಕತೆಯ
ಮಟ್ಟ, ಅವರ ಆದಾಯದ ಹಂಚಿಕೆ ಮತ್ತು ಗ್ರಾಮೀಣ ಜನಸಂಖ್ಯೆಯ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಸ್ಥಾನವನ್ನು ಅಳೆಯಲು
ಈ ಅಂಶಗಳನ್ನು ಬಳಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.
 Why India is called agrarian country?

• India is mainly an agriculture country. agriculture is the

process of utilizing land for growing different varieties of
crops. ... it is called the backbone of Indian economy.
about 60% to 70% of India's population depends upon
agriculture for their livelihood.
• The agrarian system evolved during the British regime in
India was based either on the zamindari or the Ryotwari
type of land settlements; the mahalwari system was
another variety of land system but it closely resembled
the zamindari pattern of settlement, and the difference
was mainly in the mode of revenue assessment on the
land.
• All the three systems generated more or less a similar
agrarian class structure in the villages. The zamindari
system had the zamindars, tenants and agricultural
labourers as the main agrarian classes.
• The agrarian class structure every where in India had a
feudal character; the zamindars were tax gatherers and
non-cultivating owners of land, the tenants were the real
cultivators often without security of land tenure and the
agricultural labourers in most parts of the country had
the status of bonds-men and hereditary attached
labourers.
• With the support of the British colonial power, this highly
exploitative system continued to persist despite frequent
peasant unrests and movements.
The significant trends of agrarian class structure in India following the 'interactional'
methods are: Methods ಸಂವಾದಾತ್ಮಕ' ನಂತರ ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ಕೃಷಿ ವರ್ಗ ರಚನೆಯ ಗಮನಾರ್ಹ
ಪ್ರವೃತ್ತಿಗಳು

(1) that there is a wide gap between land-reform ideology and actual measures
introduced for land reforms. Consequently, socialist transformation in the class
structure of the villages has not taken place;
(2) this lag could partly be explained by the class character of the Indian political
and administrative elites, who are resistant to the needed radical reforms;
(3) the existing land-reforms have initiated a process by which the security of
tenure and economic prosperity of the rich peasantry ha s increased but
condition of the small peasants both in respect of economic level and tenurial
stability ha s deteriorated;
(4) the feudalistic and customary types of tenancy have declined and it ha s been
replaced by a capitalistic form of lease-labour or wage labour agrarian system;
(5) a new class of rich middlestratum of peasantry has come into being and not
all of them are from among the ex-zamindars;
(6) the class inequalities between the top and the bottom
levels of the classes have increased rather than decreased;
(7) the benefits of land-reforms have so far not gone as much
to the agricultural workers or even as to ex-zamindars as to
the emergent middle peasantry;
(8) as a result of these contradictions in the agrarian class
structure, the tensions in the rural social system have
increased; and
(9) the sociological process dominant in the current class
transformations in the villages involves 'proletarianization'
of many social stratification.
• Agrarian means relating to the ownership and use of
land, especially farmland, or relating to the part of a society
or economy that is concerned with agriculture.
• Agrarian Class Structure. ... Agrarian
structure involves the social, economic and
technical elements that affect production in
the agricultural sector.
• These factors are used to measure the
productivity level of farmers, the distribution
of their income and the social position of the
rural population
 Is India an agrarian economy?

• Agriculture is the most important sector of Indian

Economy. Indian agriculture sector accounts for 18 per cent
of India's gross domestic product (GDP) and provides
employment to 50% of the countries workforce. 
• India is the world's largest producer of pulses, rice, wheat,
spices and spice products.
• Agriculture is the process of utilizing land for
growing different varieties of
crops. Agriculture has been practiced
in India for ages. it is called the backbone of
Indian economy.
• About 60% to 70% of India's population
depends upon agriculture for their livelihood.
• Agrarian Reform is very significant for the economy
of any country because more than half of the
population is employed in the agricultural sector.
• Agriculture is the main source of livelihood especially
for the developing countries. Reforms
are important because they protect the rights of the
farmers 
 Land Revenue Systems Before British Rule

• Tax from the land was a major source of revenue for the kings
and emperors from ancient times.
But the ownership pattern of land had witnessed changes
over centuries.
• During Kingship, land was divided into Jagirs, Jagirs were
allotted to Jagirdars, these Jagirdars split the land they got
and allocated to sub-ordinate Zamindars. Zamindars
• Land Revenue Systems in British India :
• Three major systems of land revenue collection existed in India. They
were – Zaminidari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari.
• Zamindari System
• Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through
Permanent Settlement Act.
• It was introduced in provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi.
• Also known as Permanent Settlement System.
• Zamindars were recognized as owner of the lands. Zamindars were
given the rights to collect the rent from the peasants.
• The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the share
belongs to Zamindars and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India
• Land Revenue Systems in British India :
• Three major systems of land revenue collection existed in India. They
were – Zaminidari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari.
• Zamindari System
• Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through
Permanent Settlement Act.
• It was introduced in provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi.
• Also known as Permanent Settlement System.
• Zamindars were recognized as owner of the lands. Zamindars were given
the rights to collect the rent from the peasants.
• The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the share
belongs to Zamindars and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India
Company.
• Ryotwari System
• Ryotwari System was introduced by Thomas Munro in
1820.
• Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay,
parts of Assam and Coorgh provinces of British India.
• In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed
over to the peasants. British Government collected
taxes directly from the peasants.
• The revenue rates of Ryotwari System were 50% where
the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land.
• Mahalwari System
• Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during the period of
William Bentick.
• It was introduced in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra,
Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British India.
• The Mahalwari system had many provisions of both the Zamindari
System and Ryotwari System.
• In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal
comprises one or more villages.
• Ownership rights were vested with the peasants.
• The villages committee was held responsible for collection of the
taxes.
• I. Abolition of Intermediaries:
• Before the attainment of independence we
had four tenancy systems in the country.  
• 1. Ryotwari system
• 2. Mahalwari system
• 3. Zainindari system
• 4, Jagirdari system
The Ryotwari System:
This system was introduced by Sir Thomas Munro in 1792. Under this system, the
responsibility of paying land revenue to the Government was of the proprietor, who is
the registered holder of the land.
There was no intermediary between him and the state. He was at liberty to sublet his
property or to transfer it by gift, sale or mortgage.
He could not be ejected from his land till he paid the revenue.
Advantages of Ryotwari System:
1. The system was successful in abolishing intermediaries.
2. The proprietor of the land took all interest for improving the land and its other related
facilities, for example, irrigation facilities.
Drawback of the System:
In Ryotwari system the land was sublet to the landless peasants. In the long run the
ryotwari system created a group of peasants who were subordinate to the proprietor
of the land. The ryotwari system was abolished by the land reform measures.
• 2. Mahalwari System:
This was introduced by the then Viceroy Lord William
Bentinck during British rule.
It was first started in Agra and Oudh and was later on
extended to Punjab.
It is the system, by which the land belonged to a small
group of families who were usually the most
powerful in their region and who were responsible
for paying rent to the state.
• Under the mahalwari system, the land ultimately belonged to the
state. The land belonging to the state was held by mahals (i.e.
villages or village communities) and not by individuals.
• According to the congress land reforms committee, the
ownership of land under this system was collective. Period of
‘settlement’, fixation of the land revenue etc. were different in
different mahalwari areas.
• This mahalwari system also came to an end soon after
independence. Today it is not at all found in north India.
• The greatest drawback of the Mehalwari system was that
through the presence of certain intermediaries it contributed to
the presence of absentee landlords.
• 3. Zamindari System:
• This system prevailed in Bengal, UP, Bombay
presidency and Tamilnadu.
• The Zamindari system was created by Lord
Cornwallis who entered into “Permanent
Settlement” with the landlords in 1793, with a view
to increase the revenue of the East India Company.
• Zamindari means normally a non-cultivating
landlord.
• Main Defects of Zamindari System:
1. The zamindars did not take interest in the improvement of land or cultivation. They
concentrated their attention in collecting revenue. That’s why quality of cultivation suffered.
2. It creates the problem of Absentee-Landlordism. This means, tills system created a unique
agrarian structure in the villages, which conferred a right of the sharing the produce of the
land on a few without participating personally in the productive process. It means it gave rise
to what is known as “absentee landlordism”. This problem resulted in the decay of the
agriculture.
3. The zamindari system was based on exploitation. The zamindars were conferred unlimited
rights to extract as much rent as they wished.
4. This system also suffers from the problem of sub-renting. The zamindars subdivided the land
and rented it out to other small zamindars, who failed to give rent to the main zamindars. The
ultimate result was the reduction in the number of actual cultivators possessing occupancy
rights.
5. This system led to a mass litigation and agrarian discontentment.
6. This system has created a kind of insecurity in the minds of the cultivators.
7. Farmers lost interests in the land.
The independent Indian Government after realising the evil consequences of zamindari system
abolished it.
• 4. Jagirdari System:
• This system was found mainly in the former princely states of
Rajasthan.
• Under this system jagirs were granted to certain military
commanders, ministers and courtiers who took revenue for their
own support or for the military force which they were obliged to
maintain.
• This system thus created a class of unproductive mass of people
by granting them jagir lands.
• The Rajasthan Jagir Abolition Act was passed in 1952 and
implemented in the year 1954. This put an end to Jagirdari
Tenancy system in Rajasthan.
II. Tenancy Reforms:
The state governments were forced to enact tenancy legislations in order to
remove the evils of the tenancy system.
The tenants of India are divided into three categories:
1. Permanent or occupancy tenant.
2. Temporary or non-occupancy tenant.
3. Sub-tenants.
Occupancy or permanent tenants enjoy permanent rights like the owner. They
do not face the fear of eviction as long as they pay rent on time. The non-
occupancy or temporary tenant and sub-tenants are in a precarious condition.
Their very existence depends on the mercy of landlords. They can be evicted
from land on minor pretexts. They do not make any improvement on the land
for the fear of eviction.
• Legislation for security of tenure had three essential aims:
1. Tenants cannot be evicted without any reason. They can be evicted in accordance with
the laws. Land may be resumed by an owner on the ground of personal cultivation only.
In the event of resumption, the tenant is assured of a prescribed minimum area.
Security of tenure creates interest among the cultivators for improving their land.
The basic objectives are:
1. Increase in productivity.
2. Promotion of social justice.
However, tenancy legislations in India are not uniform throughout the country. It varies
from state to state.
 Right of Ownership:
Some states have passed the legislations to confer the right of ownership on the tenants.
Under the tenancy law, the tenants could acquire the ownership of the lands, which
they have been cultivating by paying some amounts. This is conferment of ownership
rights.
• III. Ceilings on Land Holdings:
• Ceilings on Land Holdings mean the fixation of maximum limit (Ceiling
Limit) on the individual land holdings. Land ceiling is one of the
measures to take away surplus land from those who cross the limit of
land possession beyond a contain point.
• In January 1959, at the Nagpur conference of the Indian National
Congress, It was resolved that agrarian legislation to cover restrictions on
the size of land holdings must be implemented in all states by the end of
1959.
• The idea was to reduce the extent of Inequality in the ownership of land.
Moreover, land being in limited supply as compared to the demand for it,
the producer of the land, its proper rationing and distribution was
considered highly conducive in agricultural growth and employment.
• Failure of Land Ceiling:
• Several factors are responsible:
• These are:
• 1. Illegal transfer of land.
• 2. Judicial interventions.
• 3. Inefficient administration.
• 4. Political pressure.
• 5. Non-availability of land records.
• 6. Loopholes in ceiling laws.
• IV. Consolidation of Land Holdings:
It means bringing together the various small
plots of land of a farmer scattered all over I he
village as one compact block.
It is through purchase or exchange of land with
others. This measure is designed to solve the
problem of fragmentation of land holdings.
Advantages of Consolidation of Land Holdings:
1. It prevents the endless subdivision and fragmentation of land holdings.
2. It saves the time and labour of a farmer, since all his lands are brought
together, as one compact block.
3. It encourages improvement on land, in the form of building, fencing etc.
4. It promotes for mechanisation and large-scale cultivation.
5. It is very much helpful in irrigation.
6. It lowered down the cost of cultivation.
7. It reduces litigation among farmers.
Though consolidation of land holdings is a very useful instrument in solves
the problem of fragmentation, the task is not completely accomplished
unless laws are passed to prevent fragmentation in future.
• V. Compilation and Updating of Land Records:
• Compilation and updating of the land records are an essential condition for
the effective implementation of land reforms programme.
Land records include:
(a) the survey number of the land.
(b) the total size of the land.
(c) the name of Its owner.
(d) information regarding Irrigation facility.
(e) the level of fertility of land.
(f) the types of crops raised in the land.
In India, most of the farmers do not have proper records in this Regard. In
government offices also proper records are not maintained. In recent years,
efforts are being made to maintain the land records through computerization.
• VI. Co-Operative Farming:
• It constitutes one of the aspects of land reforms. It has
been advocated to solve the problems of sub-division
and fragmentation of holdings.
• In this system, farmers pool their small holdings for
the purpose of cultivation and reap benefits of large
scale farming.
• Here the farmers retain their ownership right on their
land and are free to withdraw their membership at
anytime.
• Co-operative farming was proposed for India due to the
following causes:
1. It solves the problem of fragmentation of land holding.
2. It would facilitate extensive agriculture, scientific fanning,
adopting new potential technologies, mechanization of
agriculture etc.
3. It contributes to higher agricultural productivity and
production.
4. It provides more income to the farmers and raises their
standard of living.
 
Land (including all natural resources)
Labor (including all human resources)
Capital (including all man-made resources)
Enterprise (which brings all the previous resources together for production).
 Production
Simple term of Production means Creation of value in the goods.
The means of production of a society include all of the physical elements,
aside from human beings, which go into producing goods and services, 
A mode of production is the relationship between the relations of
production and the forces of production. Modes of production can be
distinguished from one another by different relationships between the
forces and relations of production.
Relations of Production
• Refer to social relationships that arise directly out of the process of
production. These social relationships include the relationships
between the owners and non-owners of the means of production.
These relationships decide and even determine the control and the
capacity to possess the product
1. Land Relations and Contradictions.
While a large number of really weak tenants have lost whatever security
they had, the dominant class is extending its operational control on
land through leasing in.
Even if concentration in ownership declines, concentration in operational
holdings need not. In fact, the latter concentration is tending to be
larger than the former.
2. Income level and Rural Class Configuration.
Basically rural areas are very less developed as compared to urban areas
in terms of social, cultural and economic aspects. Lifestyle of an
individual’s are widely depended on their economic status.
Even within a small village, different types of economic classes are found.
3. Peasantry and Landless Agricultural Workers.
1) The Landlord: A landlord is a person who owns land, does not engage in labor himself, or
does so only to a very small extent, and lives by exploiting the peasants.
The collection of land rent is his main form of exploitation; in addition, he may lend money,
hire labor, or engage in industry or commerce. But his exaction of land rent from the
peasants is his principal form of exploitation.
2) The Rich Peasant: The rich peasant as a rule owns land. But some rich peasants own
only part of their land and rent the remainder. Others have no land of their own at all
and rent all their land.
The rich peasant generally has rather more and better instruments of production and
more engages in labor himself, but always relies on exploitation for part or even the
major part of his income.
A person who owns a fair amount of good land, farms some of it himself without hiring
labor, but exploits other peasants by means of land rent, loan interest or in other ways,
shall also be treated as rich peasant.
 3) The Middle Peasant: Many middle peasants own land. Some
own part of their land and rent the rest. Others own no land
of their own at all and rent all their land.
All of them have a fair number of farm implements. A middle
peasant derives his income wholly or mainly from his own
labor.
As a rule he does not exploit others and in many cases he
himself is exploited by others, having to pay a small amount in
land rent and in interest on loans. But generally he does not
sell his labor power.
4) The Poor Peasant: Among the poor peasants some own part
of their land and have a few odd farm implements, others
own no land at all but only a few odd farm implements.
As a rule poor peasants have to rent the land they work on and
are subjected to exploitation, having to pay land rent and
interest on loans and to hire themselves out to some extent.
In general, a middle peasant does not need to sell his labor
power, while the poor peasant has to sell part of his labor
power.
This is the principal criterion for distinguishing between middle
and a poor peasant.
5) The Worker:
The worker (including the farm laborer) as a rule owns no land
or farm implements, though some do own a very small
amount of land and very few farm implements. Workers make
their living wholly or mainly by selling their labor power
4. Production Conditions ·in Agriculture.
Physical Factors, Agriculture depends to a great extent on the physical factors of natural
environment.
Climate Like other parts of Assam, the climate of the district is characteristically monsoonal with
changing season. The high temperatures being experienced during the south-west monsoon
season along with abundant rains and highly humid atmosphere throughout the year.
Flood Like the most parts of Assam, the district of Darrang too is chronically a flood affected area.
Droughts are little known in the district while widespread flood has become a regular
phenomenon here.
Soil Erosion Soil erosion is an important inhibitory physical factors faced by the farmers
Socio-Economic Factors In addition to the physical factors, agricultural land use, cropping pattern
and agricultural processes
Size of Land Holdings Efficiency of agricultural operation depends to a large extent on the
possession and size of landholding of the peasants.
Land Revenue System formed part of different kingdoms at different periods of time and its real
history as a geographical unit began in 1615
5. Public Expenditure Policy, Rural Employment and Poverty.
Indirect social impacts include improvement in the quality
and quantity of public services; and improved
governance through more transparent, and accountable
management of public resources.
Rural development is an important cross–sectoral area
including rural infrastructure; water supply and
sanitation; rural finance and credit; natural resource
management; agricultural health and education
development; and decentralization.
6. Correlation between Class and Caste.
As a form of stratification, the caste is peculiar to the Indian society. It may be called as
an extreme form of closed class system. The status of individuals in the social
hierarchy is determined by birth.
Every society classifies its population into different segments on the basis of
occupation, wealth or education, which are considered predominant
characteristics of class. Persons belonging to particular segment of society are
pronounced as a separate class.
Factors Contributing to the Unity of India:
Geographical unity:
Religious Unity:
Cultural Unity
Political Unity:
Emotional Unity: etc…..
7) Credit and Indebtedness
The rural people incur debts for non­productive purposes such as to meet the family
needs, perform social functions (related to marriages, birth, death), litigation, etc.
Since money taken does not contribute to production but instead to consumption,
it drags the rural people into indebtedness.
Causes of Indebtedness:
Poverty:
Poverty is perhaps a major cause for rural indebtedness. The low level of rural
incomes, the uncertain and primitive farming of small landholdings makes it
impossible to meet the needs required for their living. Often, the rural people
take debts to meet these needs.
Social and Religious Needs:
Villagers are mostly bound by the social traditions and customs, which are considered
to be sacred and had to be performed. Some of these ceremonies are marriage,
births, deaths, religious occasions, etc.
• Litigation:
• Generally, the agriculturists in India are involved in various kinds of
disputes related to land, property, etc., which force them to go to a court
of law. Often, they view it impor­tant to win the case as it is related to the
family prestige and honour. Such litigations involve heavy expenditure
and time. In order to meet these needs, the agriculturists take loans that
they are not able to repay and are caught into indebtedness.
• Backwardness of Agriculture:
• Indian agriculture is an uncertain business. It virtually depends on
unreliable rains for the supply of water. If there are no rains or untimely
rains, the entire crop is lost and the credit invested in the agriculture goes
waste. As a result, the loan taken for the produc­tive purposes also
becomes a burden, leading to indebtedness of the farmers.
Excessive Burden of Land Revenue and Rent:
Land revenue, where it is levied by the government in some states and the rent payable
to the landowners is becoming excessive burden on small farmers. In order to pay
these land rev­enue, mid-rent, the farmers take loan. Sometimes, the farmers have to
pay these rents and land revenues even during the floods and drought. This make the
farmers run into debts.
Defective Money Lending System:
The village money lending system is very much defective. The sole aim of the money­
lenders is to extract the maximum from the farmers. The moneylenders make wrong
entries in their account books, charge very high interest rates and extract high prices
for the goods they sell to the farmers but purchase the farmers produce at very low
prices.
In course of time, as the amount debt increases, the moneylenders are much interested
in seizing the farmers lands, and other valuable assets than the debt being repaid by
the farmers. Thus, the farmers are trapped in the hands of the moneylenders.
• Consequences of Indebtedness:
• There are many economic and non-economic consequences, which are
caused by rural indebtedness. They are categorized into economic, social
and political consequences. Let us have a look at them in detail.
Economic Consequences:
Social Consequences:
Political Consequences:
Measures for the Removal of Indebtedness:
The problem of indebtedness can be solved by two means. The first is to take up measure to reduce the
burden of present indebtedness and the second is to prevent the evil from rising again in the future.
To reduce the present burden of indebtedness, the following measures have to be taken:
1. Canceling all the debts paid to the moneylenders by the farmers, which are more than the principal
amount itself, debts which are already been repaid but still stand in the account books of the
moneylenders, debts that are created by the moneylenders by fraud, loans for which repayments
have been received in the form of money, produce and other services like labour from the indebted
farmers.
2. Debts should be properly scaled down. According to law, the inheritors are liable to pay the debts
only to the extent they have inherited. In this way, most of the debts will be reduced. Debts that are
so excessive and standing are since a long time, should be settled between the concerned parties or
through the village panchayats. Debts, which do not have records or exist with incomplete records,
should also be reduced.
3. Apart from the above two steps, the remaining part of the debts should be han­dled by special
institutions such as banks. Such banks pay the amount to the moneylenders on one hand and recover
the same from the debtors on easy terms.
These banks also collect funds and provide credit facilities to their members.
To control the problem of indebtedness in future, the following steps are recommended:
1. The income of the farmers should increase so that they could meet the unpro­ductive expenses
and are not forced to take any loan.
In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary that agriculture should be conducted on scientific
basis not depending totally on the natural climatic factors. Some other measures have also been
undertaken such as the introduction of land reforms providing mar­ket for the agricultural
produce, etc.
2. The panchayats and such other village level institutions should try to solve the village disputes
and try to prevent them from going to the courts of law, which need heavy expenditure.
3. Information regarding the laws and their implementation should be given to the villagers so
that they do not get into the clutches of the moneylenders for generations.
4. Adequate credit facilities on reasonable terms should be arranged to the farm­ers. Co-operative
credit is a good solution in this regard. Private lending should be eliminated in this field.
The above-mentioned two types of measures should be carried on simultaneously. Mere
prevention without any preventive measures for future would not help the situa­tion; moreover,
there is every possibility of this evil to rise again and again. Thus, both these measures should
go hand in hand so that the problem of rural indebtedness van­ishes completely.
• Peasant movement is a social movement involved with
the agricultural policy
• Peasant movements have a long history that can be traced to the
numerous peasant uprisings that occurred in various regions of the
world throughout human history.
• Early peasant movements were usually the result of stresses in
the feudal and semi feudal societies, and resulted in violent uprisings.
• More recent movements, fitting the definitions of social movements,
are usually much less violent, and their demands are centered on
better prices for agricultural produce, better wages and working
conditions for the agricultural laborers, and increasing the agricultural
production.
• The economic policies of British adversely affected the Indian
peasants the British Govt. used to protect the landlords and
money lenders. they exploited the peasants.
• The peasants rose in revolt against this injustice on many
occasions .
• The peasants in Bengal formed their union and revolted against
the compulsion of cultivating indigo.
• Anthony Pereira, a political scientist, has defined a peasant
movement as a
"social movement made up of peasants (small landholders or farm
workers on large farms), usually inspired by the goal of improving
the situation of peasants in a nation or territory
 A few representing agrarian unrest

• Indigo growers struggle 1860

• Champaranya Movement-1917-18
• Kheda Peasant struggle -1918
• The Bardolisatyagraha-1920
• Moplah Rebellion in Malbar-1921
• Panjab Revolt in Panjab-1930
 After Independent
• Telangana Peasant struggle -1947-51
• Naxulabarri Peasant struggle -1967
• Karnataka Mahadayi etc,,,,,
 Main causes of agrarian Unrest and Peasant Struggle

1) Feeling of relative Deprivation

2) Foreign invastion,atrocities and exploitation
3) Exploitation of the tribal's
4) Destruction of the cottage industries
5) coercion exercised to grow commercial crops
6) Increasing burden of the debt
7) Increasing number of the landless and unemployment
8) Unorganising power of formers
9) Illegal Eviction of the Tenants
10) Anti-Formers Measures of the government
• The root of caste is the Latin castus, which
means "chaste" or "pure, separated." The
word arrived in English through the
Portuguese casta, which means "race" or
"lineage," and was first used in the 1700s.
 DEFINITIONS OF CASTE

“When a class is somewhat hereditary, we may call it caste.”

- C.H. Cooley

“A caste is an endogamous group, or collection of

endogamous groups, bearing a common name, membership
of which is hereditary imposing on its members certain
restrictions in the matters of social intercourse, either
following a common traditional occupation or claiming a
common origin and generally regarded as forming a single
homogeneous community.”
- E.A.H. Blunt
• Caste is a collection of families, group of families bearing a
common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical
ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same
hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent
to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous
community.”
– Risley
“When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to
their lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes
the extreme form of caste.”
- Maclver and Page
• Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status
ladder, at least ideally may not occur.
–Green
• “A caste is merely a rigid social class into which members are born and
from which they can withdraw or escape only with extreme difficulty.” It is
a type of stratification system which is most rigid in matters of mobility
and distinctness of status.”
–Lundbekg
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTE SYSTEM

1. Caste is Innate::
Its first distinguishing feature is its absolute rigidity and
immobility. A man dies in the same caste in which he is born
and it is the caste that determines his status in life.

2. Restriction on Food Habits:

The second element of caste is its prescription of certain kinds of
food for different castes. For instance, a Brahmin is not
permitted to eat non-vegetarian food. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas
are also forbidden to take certain kinds of foods as beef, but
Shudras have the liberty to consume any type of food.
• 3. Caste is Endogamous:
Endogamy is the most important element of caste system.
Wester mark considers it to be a chief characteristics of the caste.
According to this each one must marry within his own caste and within the
sub-group if there be any in that caste.
The system has become so rigid that inter-caste marriages have become too
difficult, because two persons belonging to two different castes differ in
food habits, cultural habits etc.
The violation of the rule of endogamy i.e marrying outside the caste would
mean ostracism and loss of caste.
• 4. Hierarchical Social Structure:
The caste structure of the society is hierarchy or system of subordination
held together by the relations of superiority and inferiority at the apex
of which are Brahmins and at the lowest rung are the shudras.
The relative position that a person occupies in the caste hierarchy is
mostly determined by its relations to the Brahmins. Thus, the highest
caste is that from whom a Brahmin will accept food.
The next is that caste from whom the three twice born castes, Brahmins,
Kahatriyas and Vaishyas may accept food. At the lowest are those castes
from whom the higher castes cannot accept any food or drink, not even
they may be touched without contamination-hence their hierarchy the
Brahmins enjoy a number of social and religious privileges while they
suffer a series of disabilities.
• 5. Occupation is Fixed:
Every caste regards some occupation as its own hereditary and
exclusive calling and tries to debar the others from exercising
it. The original and exclusive occupation of Brahmins was to
perform priestly duties.
The Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were to occupy themselves with
defence and commerce and the functions of Shudras were to
serve the other three castes.
In course of time many adjustments and changes have, however,
been made in these rigid pursuits of occupations.
 Recent Trends In Indian Caste system
The caste system in its attempts to adjust itself to the changed
conditions of life has assumd new roles.
Besides industrialisation and urbanisation, other factors such as
Westernisation. Sanskritisation, reorganisation of Indian
states, spread of education, socio-religious reforms,
spatial and occupational mobility and growth of market economy
have greatly affected the caste system Changes in the role of
caste must also be understood in the light of the influence of
these factors
1. Increase in the Organizational Power of Caste Education
makes people liberal, broad-minded, rationale and
democratic. Educated people are believed to be less
conservative and superstitious.
Hence it was expected that with the growth of literacy in India,
caste-mindedness and casteism would come down.
On the contrary, caste-con sciousness of the members has been
increasing.
• Every caste wants to safeguard its interests. For fulfilling the
purpose castes are getting themselves organised on the model
of labour unions.
• Today every caste wants to organised itself. Such caste
organisations are on the increase.
• Mainly to cater to the educational, medical and religious needs
of their members, these organisations are running hostels and
hospitals, schools and colleges, reading-rooms and libraries,
dharmashalas and temples and so on.
• These caste-based organisations are also trying to project the
leadership of some of their members to serve as their
spokesmen.
2. Political Role of Caste
Caste and politics have come to affect each other now.
Caste has become an inseparable aspect of our politics.
In fact, it is tightening its hold on politics.
Elections are fought more often on the basis of caste.
Selection of candidates, voting analysis, selection of legislative party leaders, distribution of
ministerial portfolios etc., are very much based on caste.
Even the communist parties which project the ideal of a casteles and classless society are
also not an exception to this.
Politics of each state, as M.N. Srinivas says, is virtually the politics of confrontation of its
“dominant castes” Thus, unless one knows the political confrontation between the
dominant castes such as Ligayats and Vokkaligas in Karnataka and Reddys and Kammas
in Andhra Pradesh, one cannot understand the politics of these two states. M.N.
Srinivas also makes a distinction between caste at the ritual level and caste at the
political level. Caste at the ritual level is smaller unit than the caste at the political level
• 3. Protection for Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes
The constitution of India has made enough provisions to protect the interests of
Scheduled Castes and Tribes.
They are offered more political, educational and service opportunities through the
reservation policy. Seats are reserved for them from Mandal panchayat to
Parliament and in all governnment departments.
Though the reservation policy is against the declared goal of establishment of a
casteless society, all political parties have supported it mostly, for political
purposes.
According to M.N. Srinivas, “The provision of constitutional safeguards to....
Scheduled Castes and Tribes has given a new lease of life to caste.” These
provisions have made some of them develop vested interests to reap permanently
the benefits of reservation.
They are also tempting many other castes to bring pressure on the government to
declare them as belonging to the category of Scheduled castes.
• 4. Sanskritisation and Westernisation
As M.N. Srinivas has pointed out, two important trends
are witnessed in caste - the process of Sanskritisation
and that of Westernisation.
The former refers to a process in which the lower
castes tend to imitate the values, practices and other
life-styles of some dominant upper castes. The latter
denotes a process in which the upper-caste people
tend to mould their life-styles on the model of
Westerners.
• 5. Backward Classes Movement
The non-Brahmin castes today are getting themselves more and more organised to challenge the
supermacy of the Brahmins and to assert their rights.
The establishment of ‘Satyashodhak Samaj’ by Jyotirao Phooley in Poona in 1873 marked the
beginning of such a non- Brahmin movement.
This movement against the Brahmin supermacy by the lower castes came to be known as
Backward Classes Movement. In the beginning, the main aim of this movement was to limit the
Brahmin monopoly in the two fields such as education and appointment to government posts.
The Backward Classes Movement has become a vital political force today.
Its influence has changed the political scenario of the country.
This movement has made the Brahmins politically weak and insignificant especially in Kerala and
Tamilnadu.
This movement has also brought pres- sure on different political parties to create special
opportunities for the lowest caste people enabling ten to come up to the level of other higher
castes.
Due to this pressure, Backward Classes Commissions were estbalished at Central and State levels
which recommended “reservation” for backward castes/classes.
• 6. Competitive Role of Castes
Mutual interdependence of castes which existed for centuries and was
reinforced by the institutional system of “jajmani”, is not found today.
As M.N. Srinivas points out, the “vertical solidarity” of castes has been
replaced by “horizontal solidarity”.. “Live and let live” policy which
was once associated with the caste makes no sense today. On the
contrary, each caste looks at the other with suspicision, contempt,
and jelousy and finds in it a challenger, a competitor. Excessive caste-
mindedness and caste-patriotism have added to this competititon.
The economic base of a caste and its hold over the political power
virtually determine the intensity of this competitiveness. This
competitive spirit further strengthens caste-mindedness
• 7. New attempts to strengthen caste-loyalty,
caste-identity,
caste-patriotism and caste- mindedness Today
caste organisations are increasing and are
making every attempt to obtain the loyality of
their members and to strengthen their caste-
identity and solidarity.
 New attempts to strengthen caste-loyalty,
caste-identity,
• (i) Though Caste Panchayats are dwindling,
caste organisations are on the increase. Some
of these organisations have their own written
constitutions and managing committees
through which they try to preserve some of
the caste rules and practices.
• ii) Caste organisations run their own papers,
bulletins, periodicals, monthlies etc., through
which they regularly feed information to the
members regarding |the activities of caste
organizations and achievements of caste-
members.
• (iii) Attempts are also made to icnrease caste
integration through the estbalishment of caste
based trusts and trust-units. These trusts arrange
annual gatherings, get-togethers, annual dinners,
occasional festival celebrations, they provide
shelter to the needy members of the caste. They
offer scholarships to the poor students of the
caste. Some of them run schools, colleges, hostels,
maternity-homes for caste members and so on.
• (iv) The occupational castes are making
determined efforts to improve the economic
conditions of caste members by establishing
cooperative credit and industrial societies.
• (v) Caste organisations collect regular subscription
from the members, arrange annual conferences,
discuss matters and issues affecting caste interests
and caste solidarity and organise agitations and
protest meetings against the governmental policies
if they were to damage caste interests. In states like
Bihar, some upper and lower castes have formed
their own ‘senas’ (militant groups) to protect their
interests.
 
• India is the largest democracy in the world.
Ruled by various kings and emperors and
colonized by the Europeans for centuries,
India became a democratic nation post its
independence in the year 1947.
Thereafter, the citizens of India were given the
right to vote and elect their leaders
• The second most populous country and the
seventh largest country by area, India is the
largest democracy in the world.
• Indian democratic government was formed
after the nation attained independence in
1947. The parliamentary and state assembly
elections are held every 5 years to elect the
Central and state governments.
• Democracy is a system of government that
allows the citizens to cast vote and elect a
government of their choice.
• India became a democratic state after its
independence from the British rule in 1947. It
is the largest democratic nation in the world.
• Democracy in India gives its citizens the right
to vote irrespective of their caste, color, creed,
religion and gender. It has five democratic
principles – sovereign, socialist, secular,
democratic and republic.
• Various political parties stand for elections at
the state as well as national level periodically.
They propagate about the tasks accomplished
in their previous tenure and also share their
future plans with the people.
• Every citizen of India, above the age of 18
years, has the right to vote.
• The government is making continuous efforts
to encourage more and more people to cast
their vote. People must know everything
about the candidates standing for the
elections and vote for the most deserving one
for good governance.
• India is known to have a successful democratic
system. However, there are certain loopholes
that need to be worked on.
• Among other things, the government must
work on eliminating poverty, illiteracy,
communalism, gender discrimination and
casteism in order to ensure democracy in true
sense.
• Many countries have a democratic system. However,
India is the largest democracy in the world. It runs
on five democratic principles including sovereign,
socialist, secular, and democratic and republic.
• India was declared a democratic nation after it
attained freedom from the colonial rule of the
British in 1947. Not only the largest, Indian
democracy is also known to be one of the most
successful ones.
• Campaigns are carried out by different
political parties to emphasize on the work
they have done for the development of people
as well on their future agenda to benefit
people
• Democracy in India does not only means providing
the right to vote but also ensuring social and
economic equality.
• While the democratic system of the country has
received worldwide appreciation there are many
areas that require improvement so that democracy
can be formed in true sense. The government must
work upon eradicating illiteracy, poverty,
communalism, casteism and gender discrimination
among other things.
• Democracy is government by the people, for the people and of
the people. The citizens in a democratic nation enjoy the right to
vote and elect their government.
• India is the largest democracy in the world. After being ruled by
the Mughals, Mauryas, British and various other rulers for
centuries, India finally became a democratic state after its
independence in 1947.
• The people of the country, who had suffered at the hands of
foreign powers, finally got the right to choose their own
ministers by casting vote. Democracy in India is not limited to
just providing the right to vote to its citizens, it is also working
towards social and economic equality.
Democracy in India works on five democratic
principles. These are:
• Sovereign: This means free from the interference or
control of any foreign power.
• Socialist: This means providing social and economic
equality to all the citizens.
• Secular: This means freedom to practice any religion or
reject all.
• Democratic: This means the government of India is
elected by its citizens.
• Republic: This means the head of the country is not a
hereditary king or queen.