THE ROLE OF CONTEXT IN

INTERPRETATION
PRAGMATIC AND DISCOURSE CONTEXT
* Reference
* Presupposition
* Implicature
* Inference
Reference and Inference
DEIXIS ?
There was an assumption that the use of words to refer
to people and things was a relatively straightforward
matter.
REFERENCE ?
An act in which a speaker or writer uses linguistic
forms to enable a listener or reader to identify
something.
Clearly tied to the spaker’s goals.
For example, to identify something. And the speaker’s
beliefs in the use of language.
Eg. Can the listener be expected to know that
particular something ?
REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
A. PROPER NOUN ( Shakespeare, Hawaii )
B. NOUN PHRASES :
Definite ( the author, the singer )
Indefinite ( a man, a beautiful place )
C. PRONOUNS
The choice of one type of referring expression rather
than another seems to be based on what the speaker
assumes the listener already knows.
Example :
Mr. Aftershave is late today.
Referring Expression: The speaker is relying on the
listener’s ability to infer what referent we have in mind.
For succesful reference to occur, we must recognize
the role of inference.
 INFERENCE
Inference is the act of process of deriving logical
conclusions from premises known or assumed to be
true.
Not all referring expressions have identifiable physical
referents.
Example :
1. There is a man waiting for you. ( A man : Indefinite
noun phrase )
2. He wants to marry a woman with lots of money. ( A
woman : Entity that is known to the speaker only in
terms of its descriptive properties)
3. We’d love to find a nine – football player. (nine
football player : Entities that do not exist)
4. There was no sign of the killer.
( the speaker does not know for sure if there is a
person who could be the referent of the definite
expression)
Referential
Example :
1. Can I borrow your Shakespeare ? Yes, It’s over there
on the table.
Referent ? A book
2. Where’s the cheese sandwich sitting ? He’s over there
by the window.
Referent ? A person
There is a convention that certain referring expression
will be used to identify certain entities on regular
basis. This appears to work between all members of
community who share a common language and
culture.
Example :
1. Shakespeares takes up the whole bottom shelf.
Referent ? Books.
2. We’re going to see Shakespeare in London.
Referent ? A Play.
3. I hated Shakespeares at school.
Referent ? Reading his play.
ANAPHORIC, CATAPHORIC, AND EXOPHORIC
REFERENCE
When we speak or write, we often refers to things that
were mention earlier, haven’t been mentioned yet or
were mentioned in another context or at another time.
What is Ananphoric Reference ?
Anaphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase
refers to something mentioned earlier in the text.
Example :
Mr. Black went to the Bank. He was annoyed because
it was closed.
Anaphoric reference often makes use of the definite
article the, because one of the function of definite
article is to indicate that something has already been
mentioned
Another examples :
He sat down at the table and took a small box from his
pocket. The object felt heavy in his hands. Inside it was
the key of his future.
Both the object and it refer back to a small box in the
first sentence.

Try to contruct another examples !

What is Cataphotic reference ?
Cataphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase
refers to something mentioned later in the text.
Example :
Although I phone her every week, my mother’s still
complains that I don’t keep in touch often enough.
Her refers forward to my mother.
The book was there on the table. I’d never read moby
Dick and I didn’t intend to do so now.
What is Exophoric Reference ?
Exophoric reference occurs when a word or phrase
refers to something outside the text.
Example :
They are late again, can you believe it ?
“I know ! Well, they’d better get here soon or it’ll get
cold.”
They refers to some people outside the text known to
both speakers.
It also refers to something that both speakers know
about ( perhaps the dinner )