CAD Database

Basic Definitions
Data structure : It is defined as a set of data items or elements
that are related to each other by a set of relations. From a
CAD/CAM point of view, a data structure is a scheme, logic or a
sequence of steps developed to achieve a certain graphics, non-
graphics and/or a programming goal.
Database : It is a collection of files. A database is also defined as
an organised collection of graphics and nongraphics data stored
on secondary storage in the computer. The objective of a
database is to collect and maintain data in a central storage so
that it will be available for operations and decision making.
Database Management System (DBMS) is defined as the software
that allows access to use and/or modify data stored in database.
Types of Data Structures
Database Models
Relational Database
Database Models
Hierarchial database
Database Models
Network database

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V E R T IC E S
Database Models
Object oriented database
Initial Graphics Exchange Specification
(IGES):
IGES works on pre & post processing methodology. A
CAD system can open any IGES file after post
processing and can generate one IGES file while
storing it in a CAD system by pre-processing as shown
in figure.
IGES File CAD System IGES File
Post Pre
Processing Processing

CAD IGES File CAD

System System
Pre Post
Processing Processing
IGES works at the level of application database
structure. This is based on concept of entities like
points, lines, circles and surfaces etc. These entities in
IGES are categorized into three types
 (a) Geometric Entities: lines, circles, surfaces etc.
 (b)Annotations Entities: additional information
like dimensions, blocks, additional notes etc.
 (c) Structure Entities: information which is
required to descriptions of objects to define how
object is made using the basic entities.
An IGES file includes the following six main sections
 (a) Flag Section: It contains information that is required by post
processor so as to translate IGES file to database form of a specific
kind
 (b)Start Section: It contains comments that can be used to
express and identify the sources, comments and annotations etc.
 (c) Global Section: A section which includes the universal
characteristics of a file like units, precision and tolerance used and
name of the file etc.
 (d)Directory Entry Section: this section summarizes the number
of entities, type of entities and their attributes, which are used to
create the model. The attributes include color, style etc.
 (e) Parametric Data section: It includes the data which is required
to describe each entity such as point coordinates, coefficient of
curves and surface equation, text types and characteristics
 (f ) Termite Section: this is a single record of ten 8-character fields.
These characters contain the information of the end of the previous
sections. This is used at the end of the file.
Product Data Exchange Specification (PDES)
PDES is an exchange for product data in support of industrial
automation. "Product data" encompasses data relevant to the
entire life cycle of a product such as design, manufacturing,
quality assurance, testing, and support. In order to support
industrial automation, PDES files are fully interpretable by
computer.
 The central unit of data exchange in "PDES model" is the
application that contains various types of entities. Therefore,
when data is exchanged between systems, it is done in terms
of "application" units. This approach maintains all the
meaningful associativities and relationships between the
application entities that make industrial automation possible.
Product data is exchanged by PDES according to
"discipline models" or "mental models." Both the
sender who originates the discipline model and the
receiver of the model must be aware of the meaning of
the discipline model being exchanged in order to
recover the correct meaning of data in the exchange.
Discipline models are standardized and defined by
PDES in order to be interpreted and used by another
computer. This implies that the disciplined model
must be computer readable, must be able to be made
explicit in the data and must be able to be exchanged
with its structure.
The PDES methodology involves a three layer architecture, reference
models, formal languages, and coordination with other standards efforts.
Within PDES, three layers are identified: the application layer, the logical
layer, and the physical layer.
 The application layer is the interface between the user and PDES. It
contains all the descriptions and information of various application
areas. These descriptions and information are expressed formally within
PDES via information modeling techniques which are sometimes referred
to as "reference models."
 The purpose of logical layer is to provide a consistent, computer
independent description of the data constructs that contain the
information to be exchanged. Both generic and application-specific
constructs are identified. A key objective here is to ensure that no
redundancy occurs in PDES generic data structures and their
relationships, and at the same time to ensure that such data structures
are sufficient to support the wide range of applications.
 The physical layer deals with the data structures and data format for
the exchange file itself. The main goal here is to establish and maintain
efficiency in the file size and processing time.
Standard for the Exchange of Product Data
(STEP)
Standard for the Exchange of Product Data (STEP) is an ISO
standard industrial automation systems product data
representation and exchange format.
 The file structure for a STEP file has a modular structure
which makes it easier for developers to adapt the format to their
own needs. The modules are called "classes" and are classified
using numbers as follows:
 11 to 13: Description methods: These classes describe the
languages and methods that are used to create a STEP file. Right
now, only two description method classes exit:
 Part 11: The EXPRESS language reference manual.
 Part 12: The EXPRESS-I language reference manual
The geometric descriptions contained within
ISO10303-203 and ISO10303-214 is identical and
comprises the core of the implementation of the
translator. The following table shows the mappings
made by Alias.
 STEP Entity Alias Entity
 Cartesian Point Point
 Line B-spline Curve
 Circle B-spline Curve
 Ellipse B-spline Curve
 Parabola B-spline Curve
 Hyperbola B-spline Curve
STL File format
STL (STereoLithography) is a file format native to the
stereolithography CAD software created by 3D Systems.
STL is also known as Standard Tessellation Language.
This file format is supported by many other software
packages; it is widely used for rapid prototyping and
computer-aided manufacturing. STL files describe only
the surface geometry of a three dimensional object
without any representation of color, texture or other
common CAD model attributes. The STL format
specifies both ASCII and binary representations. Binary
files are more common, since they are more compact.
An STL file is a triangular representation of a 3D surface
geometry. The surface is tessellated logically into a set of oriented
triangles (facets). Each facet is described by the unit outward
normal and three points listed in counterclockwise order
representing the vertices of the triangle. While the aspect ratio
and orientation of individual facets is governed by the surface
curvature, the size of the facets is driven by the tolerance
controlling the quality of the surface representation in terms of
the distance of the facets from the surface. The choice of the
tolerance is strongly dependent on the target application of the
produced STL file. In industrial processing, where
stereolithography machines perform a computer controlled layer
by layer laser curing of a photo-sensitive resin, the tolerance may
be in order of 0.1 mm to make the produced 3D part precise with
highly worked out details. However, much larger values are
typically used in pre-production STL prototypes, for visualization
purposes.
Numerical Control (NC) Defined
Programmable automation in which the mechanical actions of a ‘machine
tool’ are controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric data
that represents relative positions between a work head (e.g., cutting tool)
and a work part

Program
Program Machine
Machine
Instructions
Instructions Control
Control Unit
Unit

Transformati
on
Process
Power
Power
Numerical control
The definition of NC given by Electronic Industries
Association (EIA) is "A system in which actions are
controlled by direct insertion of numerical data at
some point, the system must automatically interpret
atleast some portion of this data".
Numerical control (NC) can be defined as a form of
programmable automation in which the process is
controlled by numbers, letters and symbols. In NC,
the numbers form a program of instructions designed
for a particular workpart or job.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF NC SYSTEM

MACHINE CONTROLLER UNIT (MCU) BLOCK DIAGRAM

Advantages of NC Machines
The lead time is reduced substantially.
The non productive time is reduced by utilizing automatic tool changers,
pallet changers.
Higher machine utilization.
NC requires fixtures which are simpler and less costly to fabricate because the positioning
is done by the NC tape rather than jigs and fixtures.
Human error is greatly reduced.
Scrap rate and rework is reduced.
Machining function of the NC tool can be easily changed by changing the
coded tape.
Prototype/small batches of components are easily produced with high accuracy.
Design changes can be easily incorporated.
Inspection costs are reduced due to improved quality.
A single machining centre with a NC can perform various operations done by different
conventional machines.
Space to house large number of machines is reduced.
Accuracy is dependent upon the program but not on operator thereby large batch,
complex parts can be easily produced.
Contouring or continuous path machining in 2D or 3D is possible.
Increased versatility and reliability results by utilisation of NC program and NC machine.
Disadvantages
NC machines require high initial cost.
Maintenance costs for NC machines are higher.
Part programmers and NC maintenance personnel have to be skilled and
experienced persons.
In preparing the punched tape, part programming mistakes are common.
In conventional NC, the control system does not provide the opportunity
to make changes in speeds and feeds during the cutting process.
The punched tape and tape readers are the least reliable components of
the NC machine.
Costly controller systems are utilised in NC machines.
The NC machines/system does not provide the management information
i.e., piece counts, machine break downs, tool changes etc.
Applications
Metal removal processes like milling, drilling, boring,
turning, grinding etc.
Press working machine tools
Welding machines
Inspection machines
Assembly machines
Tube bending
Flame cutting
Laser beam processes
Coordinate System
Z AXIS Z // rotating spindle
workpiece-rotating machine:
Z is parallel to the spindle Z
tool-rotating machine:
Z is parallel to the tool axis

Z
Z
Coordinate System
X AXIS X // table
 workpiece-rotating machine:
X
X is the direction of tool movement Z
 horizontal milling machine :

X axis is parallel to the table

 vertical machine :

+X axis points to the right

when the programmer X
Z Z
is facing the machine.
X
Fixed zero and floating zero
In fixed zero method, the origin is always located at the
same position on the machine table i.e., southwest
corner (lower-left-hand corner) of the table and all the
tool locations will be defined by positive x and y
coordinates.
 In floating zero method, the zero point is set at any
position on the machine table by the part programmer.
Based upon the workpiece contour and the type of
operation to be carried on the workpiece, the part
programmer decides where the zero point should be
located.
Absolute dimension system
Data in absolute dimension system always refer to a
fixed reference point. This point has the function of a
coordinate zero point. The absolute dimensions are
also known as 'reference dimensions'. When
describing contours and positions, absolute
dimensioning is used because the first incorrect
dimensioning of an individual point has no effect on
the remaining admissions. The absolute system is
easier to check for errors.
Incremental dimension system
Incremental dimensions are distance between
adjacent points. These distances are converted into
incremental coordinates by accepting the last
dimension point as the coordinate origin for the new
point. Incremental dimensions are also known as
'Relative dimensions' or 'Chain dimensions'. Mirror
image programming is facilitated with incremental
systems
 Absolute vs. Incremental Positioning
Absolute positioning
Move is: x = 40, y = 50

Incremental positioning
Move is: x = 20, y = 30.
Numerical control (NC) procedure
The basic steps in NC procedure to utilize NC in
manufacturing are
Process planning
Part programming
Part program entry/Tape preparation
Proving the part programs/Tape verification
Production
 Motion Control Systems
Point-to-Point systems
 Also called position systems
 System moves to a location and performs an
operation at that location (e.g., drilling)
 Also applicable in robotics

Continuous path systems

 Also called contouring systems in machining
 System performs an operation during movement
(e.g., milling and turning)
 Interpolation Methods
1. Linear interpolation
 Straight line between two points in space
2. Circular interpolation
 Circular arc defined by starting point,
end point, center or radius, and direction
3. Helical interpolation
 Circular plus linear motion
4. Parabolic and cubic interpolation
 Free form curves using higher order
equations
Machine Control Unit