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Biaya Kualitas
Biaya Kualitas
Definitions
Quality:
The total composite product and service characteristics of marketing,
engineering, manufacture and maintenance through which the product
and service in use will meet the expectations of the customer.
The characteristics of the product that come together to form the
composite of the product are: reliability, serviceability, maintainability,
safety, attractability…
Quality of a product requires the balancing-off of these requirements
It is a customer’s determination; it’s a measure of the customer’s
experience with the product or service against customer’s
requirements.
Nowadays, businesses consider quality as one of the primary
strategies, since it is a huge factor in determining their
success/failure.
In terms of software engineering, quality is defined as the extent to
which a particular software product meets its specifications
Within every single development organization there is a group who
has the primary responsibility to ensure the delivered product is what
the client requested (to ensure quality); it is called SQA group.
Definitions
Control
A process for delegating responsibility and authority for a management
activity while retaining the means of assuring satisfactory results.
This definition is based on industry terminology.
Quality Control
The process of meeting the industrial quality goal; analogy to “production
control”. Made up of 4 steps:
Setting standards
Determining the required quality standards for the product
Appraising conformance
Comparing the conformance of the developed product
Acting when necessary
Correcting problems and their causes
Planning for improvement
A continuing effort to improve the standards
Total Quality Control
The process of achieving full effectiveness in meeting the industrial goal. It
has to start with the identification of customer requirements and ends only
when the product is given to the customer who remains satisfied.
Why is the scope so wide? Because the quality of a product is affected at
many stages:
Marketing, engineering, manufacturing
Definitions
Quality Cost:
- It is represented by the costs encountered in:
- preventing
- finding
- correcting the defective work
- It represents the basis through which investment in quality
projects can be actually evaluated in terms of cost improvement,
profit enhancement….
- Quality Costs have an impact through the entire life cycle of the
product, it does not stop at the shipping phase
- They represent in general a significant amount
- It is affected (reduced) by Total Quality Control.
This way:
problems that might otherwise go unnoticed are
detected
small errors that might turn into disasters are caught
a lot of debugging and maintenance could be saved.
Appraisal Costs:
The Costs encountered in the activities
aimed at revealing quality problems.
Examples:
Glass box testing
Black box testing
Code inspections
Test automation
Interesting issues:
What about design review?
Part appraisal, part prevention
Internal Failure
The Costs encountered before the product distribution
to the customers.
Examples
Fixing bugs
Regression testing
Interesting issues:
What about cost of delays and of lost opportunity?
Like: Direct and Opportunity cost of late shipment and
Wasted advertisements
These are costs borne by the groups outside the product
development
Might give birth to controversy, so it is recommended
not to be used especially the first times the organization
is try to implement the quality-cost analysis.
External Failure
Costs encountered after the product has
already been shipped to the customers.
Examples:
Investigation of customer complaints
Refunds and recalls
Lost sales
Coding/testing/shipping of updated product
Can this always be done?
All costs imposed by law
Interesting issues:
What about cost of high turnover or cost of lost
pride?
Hard to estimate
Benefits
The goal is to reach minimum quality costs at the desired
outgoing quality level.
It’s a feed-back mechanism: quality costs data is used by the
management to make decisions that will impact the quality
costs.
Applications of Quality Costs
Measurement Tool:
Quality costs provide comparative measurements for evaluating quality
programs versus the value of the results achieved
Process-Quality Analysis Tool
Quality costs can serve effectively as an analysis tool and point out
where the problems are
Programming Tool
Quality costs determine how the available resources to be divided
Predictive Tool
Quality costs can also be used to evaluate and assure performance in
relation to the goals and objectives of the organization.
Benefits
Benefits by examples:
This approach gives insights in how
companies that don’t use the TQM might
be helped.
Example in the paper. An individual does a
quality-cost analysis and makes his
point.=>next slide
It raises other questions that can be
approached by individuals in an organization
Class Exercise!
Benefits
Savings — 180 burn deaths, 180 serious burn injuries, 2100 burned
vehicles
Unit Cost -- $200,000 per death, $67,000 per injury, $700 per vehicle
Total Benefit — 180 x ($200,000) + 180 x ($67,000) + 2100 x ($700) =
$49.5 million.
Costs
Sales — 11 million cars, 1.5 million light trucks.
Unit Cost -- $11 per car, $11 per truck
Total Cost — 11,000,000 x ($11) + 1,500,000 x ($11) = $137 million.
Ford Pinto
Quality-cost analysis looks at the costs
from only the companies’ perspective.
However, these costs might not be easily
estimated
It ends up costing Ford way more
Motors Corp vs Johnston
When calculating the trade-off between
several factors (costs one of them) it is
important for the companies to realize
and take into account the customer’s
costs.
Another look at External Failure Costs
Borne by seller
Given in the previous slide
Borne by buyer
Death / Injury
Embarrassment
Might affect their customers
Cost of tech support
Cost of replacing product
Why are the companies reluctant to
implement quality-costs analysis?
Skepticism ; some companies have tried and failed or they are
aware of other companies that tried and failed
They don’t know whom to trust; there are many advocates and
agendas.
They believe in “Our business is different.”
Mediocre quality is still saleable.
The confusion in language—the belief that “higher quality costs
more.”
Certification to the ISO 9000 will solve all their issues related to
quality performance.
ISO 9000: The quality management system standards, which are based
on the eight quality management principles:
Principle 1 Customer focus
Principle 2 Leadership
Principle 3 Involvement of people
Principle 4 Process approach
Principle 5 System approach to management
Principle 6 Continual improvement
Principle 7 Factual approach to decision making
Principle 8 Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
References
“Quality Control Handbook”, J.M. Juran, Third
Edition 1979
“Total quality control”, A.V. Feigenbaum, Third
Edition 1991
“Quality Management: Implementing the best
ideas of the masters”, Bruce and Suzzane Brocka,
1992
“Why TQM fails and what to do about it”, Mark
Graham Brown, Darcy E. Hitchcock, Marsha L.
Willard, 1994
http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/
http://www.parasoft.com/