Cyclic Deformation In

Ductile Single Crystals

By Nandakishor V Yaragatti
Roll No: 100922006
Course: MTECH-CAMDA
College: MIT, Manipal
 Contents
• Formation of persistent slip bands
• Electron microscopy observations
• Static or energetic models
• Dynamic models of self organized dislocation
structures
• Formation of labyrinth and cell structures
• Effects of crystal orientation and multiple slip
• Monotonic V/s cyclic deformation in FCC Crystals
• Cyclic deformation in BCC single crystals
• Shape changes in fatigued BCC crystals
• Cyclic deformation in HCP single crystals
• Bibilography
 Formation of PSBs
• At the beginning of stage B in the saturation cyclic
stress-strain curve, structural changes must take place
within the matrix to accommodate high values of plastic
strains because the dislocation veins in the matrix
cannot accommodate strains in excess of approximately
10-4.
 Electron microscopy observations

• Hozwarth & Essman presented a study of the

mechanism by which the matrix vein structure is
transformed into the wall structure of a PSB.
• They started with a saturated matrix vein structure in a
Cu single crystal at plastic shear strain, = 10-4,
using a fully-reversed plastic-strain control test, until
saturation to a cumulative plastic strain of =15 at shear
stress, =28Mpa at 300K.
• The crystal was then subjected to a sudden increase in
plastic shear strain, =4X10-4. which caused an instant
jump in the flow stress to 33MPa and which initiated the
formation of PSBs.
 Formation of PSBs

• These experiments reveal that the

transformation from the matrix vein structure to
the PSB wall structure most likely commences at
the centers of the veins wherein exist small
areas that are dislocation poor.
• These soft areas are surrounded by a harder
shell of higher dislocation density, wherein
develop the first dislocation walls.
• In the plateau regime, the walls shift at a rate of
1-2nm/cycle, and this shift plays an important
role in establishing the typical ladder pattern in
PSB.
 Evolution of PSB wall structure

• The evolution of a PSB wall structure in the dislocation-poor region

of the matrix veins(marked by arrows). g=(1 1 1). =4X10-4 .
(From Holzwarth & Essman,1993.)
 Formation of PSBs

• Consider the PSB in the above fig. which cuts

through a row of veins.
• From the geometry of the nascent wall structure
and surrounding vein structure, it is noted that
the walls originate from the vein shells and that
they have to move very little to establish their
spacing during PSB evolution.
 Static or energetic models
• The formation of dislocation structures within the veins
and PSBs can potentially be obtained from calculations
of the equilibrium of positions finite population of
dislocations.
• Basis for the earlier models was the Taylor-Nabarro
lattice.
• According to Neumann, force per unit length on the i th
dislocation is given by:
Static or energetic models
Static or energetic models
 Dynamic Models of self-organized
dislocation structures
• The dislocations are represented by density,
which is a function of space and time.
• The to-and fro motion of dislocations under a
cyclic stress is modeled in one dimension as a
diffusion phenomenon with a flux term D, where
D is an effective diffusion coefficient and rho is
the density of dislocations.
• Two populations of dislocation are considered:
immobile dislocation of density rho i and free
dislocations of density rho m.
Dynamic Models of self-organized
dislocation structures

Walgraef and Aifantis arrived at the following

set of coupled differential equations for
densities of trapped and free dislocations:
 Dynamic Models of self-organized
dislocation structures
• Solution of the above equation predicts the
instabilities in the form of oscillations in time and
spatial patterning.
• These two instabilities are related to the
ocurrence of strain bursts and the formation of
PSBs respectively.
• This analysis relies on the assumption of
dislocations and ignores the specific dislocation
geometries within dipolar PSB walls and
channels.
 Dynamic Models of self-organized
dislocation structures
• Differt and Essman proposed a dynamic model
for edge dislocation walls within reaction transport
modelling framework.
• Two important length scales were introduced in
the reaction terms: (i) the critical annihilation
distance of a dipole under the influence of an
applied stress and (ii) the critical distance for the
spontaneous annihilation of closely spaced
dipoles.
• The analysis shows how the walls move.
 Dynamic Models of self-organized
dislocation structures
• This mechanism rationalizes why a freshly formed
PSB is less periodic and imperfect than a mature
one.
• In summary, the dislocation arrangements in fatigue
can be broadly classified in to two basic groups: (i)
Structure in which equilibrium is maintained and (ii)
Nonequilibrium self-organised dislocation structures.
• The non- equilibrium structures have been shown to
provide a rationale for the instigation of fatigue
instabilities such as the formation of ladder
structures in PSBs and strain bursts.
Formation of labyrinth and cell structures
Formation of labyrinth and cell structures
Formation of labyrinth and cell structures

• For plastic shear strain <10-3 the slip band

structure is characterized by the hard matrix
comprising veins and the softer PSBs with wall
structure.
• An increased contribution of secondary slip and
a gradual evolution of ‘labyrinth’ and ‘cell’
structures are noticed for plastic shear strain >
2X 10-3.
• The labyrinth consists of two sets of orthogonal
Burgers Vectors: b1 and b 2 denote the primary
and conjugate Burgers Vectors respectively.
Formation of labyrinth and cell structures

• At higher plastic shear strain and end of

saturation stress strain curve for FCC crystals:
matrix phase with labyrinth structure to PSBs and
labyrinth structure to cell structure.
• Secondary slip (prevalent in region C) originates
at the PSB-matrix interface and spreads in the
form of an expanding cell structure which fills the
PSBs.
• The transformation of all the PSBs into a cell
structure appears to occur after 106. cycles.
 Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
• The cyclic deformation of FCC single crystals
oriented for single slip exhibits two prominent
features ;(i) the existence of a plateau region,
and (ii) the formation of PSBs with their
characteristic wall structures.
• The possibility of occurrence of plateau in the
CSS- curve, as well as the extent of the plateau
region are strongly influenced by the
crystallographic direction of the FCC crystal
along which the fatigue loading is imposed
 Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
• Gong, Wang & Wang have studied the effect of
multiple slip on CSS curve in Cu crystals. They
found an absence of a plateau regime & in the
strain range = 1x 10-4 – 3x10-3 , no PSBs were
found to occur.
• Fatigued [001] crystals comprise principally
labyrinth structures of primary and critical
dislocations, which can more easily
accommodate multiple slip and cross slip than
the ladder structures.
Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
 Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
• The interactions among different slip systems in
the labyrinth and the attendant formation of
lomer-cottrell locks causes a much higher cyclic
hardening rate in multiple-slip orientations than
in single glide.
• The labyrinths accommodate different imposed
plastic strains by appropriately adjusting their
channel widths; an increase on plastic shear
strain is accomodated by a reduction in the
channel width of the labyrinth.
• Multiple slip during cyclic deformation causes
improvement in fatigue limit.
Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
Effects of crystal orientation and
multiple slip
 Monotonic v/s cyclic deformation
in FCC crystals

• At very low plastic shear strains, (≤5X10 -4),

the dislocation configurations first generated
during rapid cyclic hardening correlate well with
the substructures found during stage I
deformation of FCC monocrystals in monotonic
tension, with the exception that the matrix veins
seen in fatigue are akin to the cell structures in
Stage II of monotonic tension.
• At higher strain amplitudes, the dislocation
structures in the cyclic work hardening stage are
similar to the unidirectional Stage I
configurations only during the first few cycles.
 Monotonic v/s cyclic deformation
in FCC crystals

• At high plastic strain amplitudes, corresponding

to the regime of the CSS curve, the formation of
cell structures and the associated rapid
hardening during the early fatigue cycles finds
an analogy in stage II deformation of FCC single
crystals in unidirectional tension.
• The formation of PSBs at the onset of saturation
is somewhat analogous to coarse slip band
development during Stage III deformation of
FCC single crystals in monotonic tension.
 Monotonic v/s cyclic deformation
in FCC crystals
• The density of dislocations produced during
cyclic loading is significantly higher than that
generated, at comparable stresses, during
monotonic tension.
• The evolution of persistent slip bands with their
wall structure of edge dislocations is specific to
cyclic deformation.
• A striking feature of fatigue deformation is the
establishment of a saturated state where the
peak resolved shear stress is independent of the
plastic shear strain amplitude.
 Monotonic v/s cyclic deformation
in FCC crystals
• The flow stress of FCC crystals exhibits a stronger
dependence on temperature and strain rate in fatigue
than in tension.
• Monotonic loading leads to the formation of surface slip
steps which resemble a staircase geometry, cyclic
deformation produces sharp peaks and valleys at sites
where the PSBs emerge at the specimen surface.
• In monotonic tensile deformation of a single crystals,
both the slip plane and the slip direction rotate toward
the tensile axis, whereas there is no such orientation
change during fully reversed cyclic loading of the
crystals, however this results in prominence of primary
dislocations and the absence of long-range internal
stresses durin cyclic hardening.
Monotonic v/s cyclic deformation
in FCC crystals
 Cyclic deformation in BCC
single crystals

• The core of the screw dislocation in BCC metals

doesn’t dissociate, and the particular nature of
the screw dislocation core structure in BCC
induces very high lattice friction.
• In BCC metals due to the special role of screw
dislocations effects such as strain-rate
sensitivity, strong temperature dependence of
cyclic deformation, relative mobility of edge and
screw dislocations, as well as asymmetry of slip
between tension and compression are seen.
 Cyclic deformation in BCC
single crystals
• Different regimes in the variation of mean saturation
axial stress as a function of the axial plastic strain range
during cyclic deformation of α-Fe single crystals at 295K.
• At low plastic strain amplitudes (≤10-3), essentially no
hardening occurs and the cyclic strain is a manifestation
of the motion of edge dislocations only.
• At higher strain amplitudes, deformation proceeds by the
large scale motion of edge and screw dislocation and
culminates in the formation of a cell structure;
pronounced cyclic hardening as well as change in the
shape of the crystal are observed due to asymmetric slip
of screw dislocations in tension and compression.
 Cyclic deformation in BCC
single crystals
• Although no PSBs have been identified in either
regime of plastic strain amplitudes, ill defined
bands of slip have been noticed which leads to
the crack nucleation.
• In TEM investigations of dislocation structures
ahead of fatigue cracks have identified the
existence of PSBs in polycrystalline Cu but not
in pure -Fe.
Difference in the fatigue response of BCC
and FCC single crystals
• At 295K and at low plastic strain amplitudes,
thermally activated glide of screw dislocations as
well as dislocation multiplication are strongly
suppressed in BCC α-Fe, whereas FCC metals
are only weakly strain rate-sensitive, the flow
stress of BCC metals is strongly dependent on
the strain rate.
• In general, as a consequence of dynamic strain-
ageing, high temperatures, very low strain rates
and the addition of impurity atoms to the BCC
metal promote cyclic damage that is similar to
that found in FCC metals.
Shape changes in fatigued BCC crystals

• If slip occurs on different planes during tension and

compression portions of fatigue, a crystal must
undergo shape changes due to this slip symmetry.
• Neumann showed that the shape change
produced by cyclic straining can be correlated with
slip irreversibility, which is an important factor for
crack nucleation.
• The net displacement after N fatigue cycles of a
point in the crystals is given by the following
relation:
Shape changes in fatigued BCC crystals
Shape changes in fatigued BCC crystals
Cyclic deformation in HCP single crystals

• The deformation is strongly influenced by impurity

and interstitial content.
• Cyclic deformation is strongly influenced by the
propensity for twin formation. An increase in the
occurrence of cyclic twins causes a marked in the
cyclic hardening rate.
• At fixed applied strain amplitudes, orientations which
promote single slip and cross slip give rise to dipole
arrays and dislocation loops, whereas cell structures
are found in the specimens oriented for duplex and
mulitple slip
Cyclic deformation in HCP single crystals
 Bibliography

• Suresh S
• Thomas H Courtney
• Effect of orientations on cyclic deformation
behavior of Ag and Cu single crystals: Cyclic
stress–strain curve and slip morphology by P. Li,
Z.F. Zhang *, S.X. Li, Z.G. Wang;Shenyang,
National Laboratory for Materials Science,
Institute of Metal Research.
• Science Direct, Acta materialia.