Chlorine

Chemical Process:
Diaphragm
 Diaphragm separate the chlorine liberated at the anode
from the hydrogen and NaOH produced at the cathode.

 Without the diaphragm to isolate them the H and Cl

would ignite spontaneously.

 NaOH and chloride react to form sodium hypochlorite.

(NaOCl).

 This mixture is sold as bleach

Compose of Asbestos or polymer fibre which are
permeable. ***

Properties of diaphragm material:

 Porous
 Chemically stable
 Relatively inexpensive and abundant material.
ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE OF THE
DIAPHRAGM CELL METHOD
Other Methods of Cl production
 Operates at a lower voltage than mercury cells
 Less pure brine than required by membrane and mercury cells.
 Produce Cl with nearly no oxygen
 The capital cost is relatively less expensive than mercury cells
 NaOH is produces as a profitable by-product. The sodium hydroxide
solution leaving the cell is concentrated by evaporation. During this
process, most of the sodium chloride crystallises out as solid salt. The
salt can be separated, dissolved in water, and passed through the cell
again.
 Even after concentration, the sodium hydroxide will still contain a
small percentage of sodium chloride.
DISCUSS THE INDUSTRIAL
IMPORTANCE OF HALOGEN AND
THEIR COMPOUNDS
CHLORINE

Bleach: Chlorine has a powerful oxidizing ability and is used in

 Removing stains from clothing
 Paper manufacturing
 Swimming pool as disinfectant
 Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
 Halogenated hydrocarbon: CFCs
 Solvents in the dry cleaning industry
 Anaesthetics
 Everyday products such as insecticides food paints, plastics,
dyes, textile and petroleum products.
Fluoride
 Refrigerants
 Detergents
 Producing uranium.
 Production of CFCs: aersol sprays, cleaning agents and polymer.
 Toothpaste
Bromine

 Good decomposer
 Disinfect water
 Photographic fil,
 Fumigants
 Flame proofing agents
 Medicine
Iodine

 Medicine
 Photography
 Dyes
 X-ray radio contrast agent
IMPACT OF THE CHLOR-ALKALI
INDUSTRY ON THE ENVIRONMENT
 Asbestos related diseases
 Depletion of ozone layer
 Dioxin emissions

 Mercury emission.
Past paper:

2015 #6
SULPHURIC ACID (H2SO4)
Contact Process for the Manufacturing of
H2SO4
Sulphuric aid is produces commercially using the contact process. The raw
materials needed are a source of sulphuric dioxide, air, water and catalyst.
The main stages in the process are:
Production of sulphur dioxide
Oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide
Hydration the sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid
Production of Sulphuric Acid

 Burning sulphur in an excess air

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Sulphur + Oxygen Sulphur Dioxide

 Heating sulphide ores like pyrite in an excess of air

4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
Iron Sulphide + Oxygen Iron(III) Oxide + Sulphur Dioxide

 Decomposing calciun sulphate in the process of coke

2CaSO4(s) + C(s) 2CaO(s) + CO2(g) + 2SO2(g)
OXIDATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE
TO SULPHUR TRIOXIDE
 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2S03(g)
H =-196kJmol-1
HYRDATING THE SULPHUR
TRIOXIDE TO SULPHURIC ACID
 H2SO4(l) + H2O(l) H2S2O7(l)

 H2S207(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l)

Industrial Importance of Compounds of
Sulphuric Acid
 Most sulphur is used to produce sulphur dioxide to make sulphuric acid. It is also
used in the vulcanization of natural rubber to improve its elasticity and tensile
strength. This process makes the rubber less sticky and less soluble in organic
solvents.

 Other uses of sulphur are as a fungicide and as fumigant.

 Sulphur dioxide is a reducing agent and is used for bleaching wool, straw and paper.
The bleaching effect is usually temporary as oxygen in the atmosphere can re-oxidize
the reduced material. Example why white newspaper turns yellow after some time.

Sulphur dioxide is useful as an antioxidant
in:
 food preservation
 alcoholic drinks
 dried fruits
 Soft drinks
The main advantage of SO2 is the combination of antioxidative activity with its
ability to inhibit polyphenol oxidase, which is catalysing browning of food products
and it also prevents growth of moulds and its acidity also kills bacteria.
Main use of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
The main use of sulphur dioxide is in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. H2SO4 is
commonly used in the manufacture of:
 fertilizers
 detergents
 car batteries
 high strength fibres
 paints
 pigments.
It is also used in petroleum refining and metallurgy.
The Impact of the Sulphuric Acid Industry
 Sulphuric acid is a highly corrosive compound that mixes with water, and it causes
problems for the environment as it kills plant life. In waterways it readily mixes with
the water. Ingestion of this water by wildlife results in illness and sometimes death.
The acid typically gets into water because of improper disposal, but it also can be
airborne from factories. This airborne sulphuric acid can be inhaled by animals and
humans

 Plant growth may be stunted due to weakened roots brought on by acid rain
exposure
WATER
THE WATER CYCLE
 Fresh water evaporates from seas, lakes and the soil
 The water vapour is carried by winds across the Earth’s surface
 When this air reaches colder land masses or colder air, the water
vapour cools and condenses to tiny droplets of water to form
clouds
 The droplets get larger and fall as rain or snow. Some of the
water falls back into the sea or lakes and some falls on the land.
 The water falling onto the land drains through the soil into
streams and rivers and finds its way back into the sea to start the
cycle again
 In this way, the amount of water in the seas, the atmosphere and
land is kept constant
IMPORTANCE OF THE WATER
CYCLE
 The water cycle is a natural self purifying system that is vital to
all living things. Without the continuous return of fresh water to
the earth, organisms could not exist. The water cycle provides
fresh water for drinking, agriculture, industry and domestic use. It
also replaces water lost by lakes, rivers and oceans which are
habitats for many organisms. Furthermore, the water cycle
affects the climate on earth. It regulates the temperature by
absorbing heat from the equator.
PURIFYING WATER

 Pure water for drinking or industry can be obtained from sea

water or brackish water (slightly salty water) by desalination.
Desalination is the removal of salts from the water, it is especially
important in countries where fresh water is in short supply.
Fractional distillation and flash
distillation
 Pure water can be obtained from seawater by fractional
distillation but this is expensive and requires a lot of energy. This
is most suited to countries where energy supplies are cheap.
Flash distillation produces over 60% of all the desalinated water
in the world. Seawater is fed in at one end of a large tank and
warmed. It is then pumped through a series of
compartments(heat exchangers) where the pressure and
temperature is successively lower. At each of these stages, some
of the seawater turns to steam and condenses again, forming
pure water.
Electrodialysis

 Electrodialysis is used to transport the ions in salt (Na And Cl)

from one solution to another through an ion-exchange membrane
under the influence of a voltage. The Cl ions move towards the
anode. These ions pass through a positively charged anion-
exchange membrane but are prevented from further migration to
the anode by the negatively charged cation-exchange
membrane. The Na ions move to the cathode but are prevented
migrating further by an anion-exchange membrane. So the ions
are concentrated in one part of the cell leaving the other part
depleted in ions.
Ion Exchange

 Ion-exchange columns have been used in commercial and

household water purification units for many years. These are
based on the idea that an ion on the resin swaps with an ion in
solution. In order to remove sodium and chloride ions from water
a series of three columns is used, one which acts as the
desalination column and another two which serve to maintain a
specific balance of anions and cations.
Reverse Osmosis

 Water is forced from a region of high solute concentration (salt

solution) to a region of low solute concentration through a
selectively permeable membrane, by applying a pressure on the
high concentration side. The salt solution gets more concentrated
as the water passes from it.
Freeze desalination

 When salty water freezes, the ice separates leaving a solution

with a high concentration of salt. The ice is taken from the
solution and remelted. By repeating this process several times,
ice free of salts is formed.
WATER
POLLUTION
WHAT IS WATER POLLUTION

 Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human

activities. Water bodies include for example lakes, rivers, oceans and
groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the
natural environment.
Sources of water pollution

 There are various classifications of water pollution. The two chief sources of
water pollution can be seen as Point and Non-Point.
 • Point refer to the pollutants that belong to a single source. An example of this
would be emissions from factories into the water.
 • Non-Point on the other hand means pollutants emitted from multiple sources.
Contaminated water after rains that has traveled through several regions may also
be considered as a Non point source of pollution.
 Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete
conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples- discharges from a sewage treatment plant,
a factory and city storm drain.
 Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate
from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often accumulative effect of small amounts
of contaminants gathered from a large area.
 •The leaching out of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land which has been fertilized
is a typical example.
What is Eutrophication?
 Eutrophication is the process through which a body of water becomes enriched
with chemicals such as nitrates and phosphates. Algae and other aquatic plants
then feed on these nutrients leading to excess growth. This leads to a reduction in
the amount of dissolved oxygen available as algal blooms on the surface restrict
the amount of sunlight penetrating the water limiting photosynthesis which causes
the death and decomposition of plant life underwater. The lack of dissolved
oxygen also kills all animal life in the water body.
types of water
pollution
 1. Nutrients Pollution
 Some wastewater, fertilizers and
sewage contain high levels of
nutrients. If they end up in water
bodies, they encourage algae and
weed growth in the water. This will
make the water undrinkable, and
even clog filters. Too much algae
will also use up all the oxygen in the
water, and other water organisms in
the water will die out of oxygen
starvation.
 2. Surface water pollution
 Surface water includes natural water found on the earth's surface, like rivers,
lakes, lagoons and oceans. Hazardous substances coming into contact with this
surface water, dissolving or mixing physically with the water can be called surface
water pollution.
 3. Oxygen Depleting
 Water bodies have micro-organisms.
These include aerobic and anaerobic
organisms. When to much
biodegradable matter (things that
easily decay) end up in water, it
encourages more microorganism
growth, and they use up more
oxygen in the water. If oxygen is
depleted, aerobic organisms die, and
anaerobic organism grow more to
produce harmful toxins such as
ammonia and sulfides.
4. Ground water pollution
When humans apply pesticides and chemicals to soils, they are washed deep into the
ground by rain water. This gets to underground water, causing pollution underground.
This means when we dig wells and bore holes to get water from underground, it needs to
be checked for ground water pollution.

 5. Microbiological
 In many communities in the world, people
drink untreated water (straight from a river
or stream). Sometimes there is natural
pollution caused by micro-organisms like
viruses, bacteria and protozoa. This natural
pollution can cause fishes and other water
life to die. They can also cause serious
illness to humans who drink from such
waters.
 6. Suspended Matter
 Some pollutants (substances,
particles and chemicals) do not
easily dissolve in water. This kind of
material is called particulate matter.
Some suspended pollutants later
settle under the water body. This can
harm and even kill aquatic life that
live at the floor of water bodies.
 7. Chemical Water Pollution
 Many industries and farmers work with
chemicals that end up in water. This is
common with Point-source Pollution. These
include chemicals that are used to control
weeds, insects and pests. Metals and solvents
from industries can pollute water bodies.
These are poisonous to many forms of aquatic
life and may slow their development, make
them infertile and kill them.
 8. Oil Spillage
 Oil spills usually have only a localized effect on wildlife
but can spread for miles. The oil can cause the death to
many fish and get stuck to the feathers of seabirds
causing them to lose their ability to fly.
INDUSTRIAL CAUSES OF WATER
POLLUTION
• Industrial waste
Industries cause huge water pollution with their activities. These come mainly from:
Sulphur – This is a non-metallic substance that is harmful for marine life.
• Oil Pollution by Oil Industries
Routine shipping, run-offs and dumping of oils on the ocean surfaces happen
everyday. Oil spills cause major problems, and can be extremely harmful to local
marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters and other aquatic life. Because oil
does not dissolve, it stays on the water surface and suffocates fish. Oil also gets
caught in the feathers of sea birds, making it difficult for them to fly. Some animals
die as a result.
 Other causes of water pollution

• Sewage and waste water -Sewage is the term used for wastewater that often contains feces, urine and laundry waste. The
sewage and waste water that is produced by each household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water.
The sewage water carries harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are known as
a common water pollutant.

• Mining activities- Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other minerals from underground.
These elements when extracted in the raw form contains harmful chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic
elements when mixed up with water which may result in health problems.

• Ocean and marine dumping- Again, think of the rubbish we all make each day. Paper waste, food waste, plastic, rubber,
metallic and aluminum waste. In some countries, they are deposited into the sea. All these waste types take time to
decompose.

• Underground storage and tube leakages- Many liquid products (petroleum products) are stored in metal and steel tubes
underground. Other sewage systems run in underground tubes. Overtime, they rust and begin to leak. If that happens,
they contaminate the soils, and the liquids in them end up in many nearby water bodies.
What is bioaccumulation and persistent?
 Bioaccumulation is the build-up of toxic substances in a food chain. A common
example in aquatic systems is the accumulation of heavy metals such as mercury
(Hg) in fish. At the start of the chain, mercury is absorbed by algae in the form of
methylmercury (CH3Hg+). Fish then eat the algae and absorb the methylmercury
and since they are absorbing it at a faster rate than it can be excreted, it
accumulates in the body of the fish. Further up the food chain, predatory fish and
birds then absorb the mercury from the fish they consume, which then
accumulates in their bodies leading to a higher concentration of the mercury in
their own bodies than in the species they have eaten. This is known as
biomagnification. This process can be dangerous to humans as we could consume
fish which have bioaccumulated mercury and absorb it ourselves, causing health
problems such as damage to the central nervous system.
 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to
environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic
processes. Because of their persistence, POPs bioaccumulate with potential
adverse impacts on human health and the environment.
 Common pollutants include:
 Cyanides: from metal extraction industries, eg silver, gold, the iron and steel industry
and also the discharge of materials from the preparation of organic chemicals.
 Nitrates : from leaching of fertilizers.
 Phosphates: from the leaching of fertilizers and sewage disposal including
phosphates from detergents.
 Heavy metals: eg mercury from the chlor-alkali industry, lead from old water pipes
and from anti-knock agents from petrol, cadmium from electroplating and batteries.
 Other metals: eg Al from clay extraction, trace elements by leaching through soil or
from discharges from industry.
 Pesticides and herbicides: rain washes these from crops and leaches them into rivers.
 Petroleum residues
 Suspended particles: small particles of clay and other minerals is paint washes from
construction sites, quarries and storm sewers.