INDUSTRIAL Radiography FILM and

Characteristics

Radiography I
 Agenda

• Film construction, what, why and effects.

• Film characteristic curve (Chapter 7 of text)
• Read chapter 9-film
• Read chapter 10-processing
In TEXT Chapter 9

INDUSTRIAL X-RAY FILM

Modern X-ray film

• Emulsion-gelatin containing radiation sensitive silver compound (silver halide-bromide or

chloride). Grain size refers to the size of grain clumping. The smaller the grain size the
higher the intensity and time needed. The smaller the grain clumping the more detail seen.
• Base- flexible, transparent, blue tinted.
• Consists of polyester/acetate base, emulsion and protective coating.
• Films with highest detail visibility have emulsion only one side of the base. Emulsion on
both sides of the base doubles the amount of radiation sensitive silver halide/bromide and
increases film speed (exposed quicker).
• When photons (xrays of gamma rays) strike the emulsion a latent image is formed. When
the latent image (exposed film) is processed the silver halide suspended in the gelatin makes
up the image by developer causing the formation of black metallic silver and fixer removing
unexposed silver halide crystals.
 Image formation
X-rays, gamma strike the grains of silver halides

Change in physical structure- “latent image”

Chemical action (Developer ) causing the formation of

black metallic silver -we will examine the chemical
processing of the film and the chemicals involved to
produce our radiographic film and image later
 Film types: Classification categories

TYPE SPEED GRAIN CONTRAST LATITUDE USAGE

1 Very slow Extra fine high low Critical inspection, light

metals and alloys.

2 slow fine high low Light metals at lower

voltages, heavier steel
parts at higher voltages.

3 medium medium medium medium Highest speed with lead

foil screens (xray) or
gamma rays

4 fast large low high Used with fluorescent

screens
 Film types: Classifications
Part of the GE/ Agfa film range with relative
exposure factors and code classification is
listed with various radiation intensities below
in the table:
Note I: It is common practice to compare relative exposure
factors with those of D7 film, which are shown bold as
reference value 1.0 in the table for auto and manual film
processing.
 Film –energy level exposure factors

From GE structurix 2017 product sheet

 Film graininess Refer to page 195 in Kodak text: chapter 17.

• Film speed governs graininess. Slower films have smaller silver bromide crystals than faster
films. This means more photons of radiation will have to be absorbed in a slower film and/or at
higher energy levels one photon absorbed may/will expose multiple grains/crystals.
• The analogy of rain drops on the side walk. Number of drops hitting the sidewalk, the average
and amount, the statistical distribution from one area to the next and its effect in that area.
Remember time factor—so more individual drops over this time which wet the sidewalk and the
area made wet by one drop.
• Now think of the random spatial distribution of photons absorbed in the film, the exposure to
any small area of the film in a beam of radiation is likely to differ – this is the noise which
interferes with visibility of small detail because the image of detail may be lost in the density
variations, exposure/absorption of crystals in film.
• Signal to noise ratio: the “clumps”, and visual impression of graininess in an image. The
grouping of individual exposed silver particles in the film.
• Signal is the difference of the number of photons reaching the film through the detail and the
average number reaching similar areas outside the detail. The ratio of signal to noise has a
profound bearing on the minimum size of detail that can be seen. Signal to noise must be at
least 5 times.
• An example: one film with a density of 2.0 for 300,000 absorbed photons vs a film requiring
1,000,000 absorbed photons (slower film). The slower film requires more radiation and would
have say 3 times the number of individual detail in the same density and therefore a better
image.
Factors in film selection for the radiograph:
1. The composition, shape and size of the part
2. The type of radiation used (X or gamma)
3. The kV available
4. Type of info required. Type of inspection- critical
vs noncritical ---sensitivity (required resolution
of smallest detail-image quality)
5. The relative emphasis on definition, contrast,
density and the time required for proper
exposure
 Film characteristic curve
• Sensitometric curve, H&D curve
• X-axis- log relative exposure
• Y-axis-density
• Made by manufacturer
• Suitable to all kV/energy levels and scattered conditions
• Uses log to compress graph into more manageable scale
• Radiographer can use these curves of the film to correct
exposures to achieve the desired image density or change
film type.
 Film characteristic curve versus Exposure chart.
Making an Exposure Chart
1. Aluminum or steel step wedge or slope wedge
2. Do exposure of 1 minute (Select constant mA, kV, film)
3. In the film find the thickness of material that produces the density 2.o (or other
value)
4. Plot a point in exposure chart (thickness that produced density 2 at corresponding
exposure time at particular KV)
5. Repeat procedure with exposure 2 and 4 minutes (or other comb.)
6. Plot the line through 3 points minimum (1 line per certain kV setting)
 Film characteristic curve
• The film characteristic/H and D/ Sensitometric curve expresses the relation between
exposure applied to a film(photosensitive material) and the resulting photographic
density. The steeper the slope of the curve the faster the film. Film contrast is
greatest where the slope of the curve is greatest.
• Used to Adjust the exposure to produce a radiograph with a different film density
• Used to Adjust the exposure to allow the use of a different film type.
• Using the difference between the log relative exposure to multiply or divide the first
exposure to get the second exposure at the desired density.
• (the antilog of the log of relative exposure is used: so for example the difference
between 1 and 1.5 is .5 log relative exposure=therefore the anti log is 10 to the x. X
being the difference .5. this equals 3.16 and is the multiplier or divider of the first
exposure to achieve the second exposure at the corrected density.
• In radiography the slope in the film characteristic curve is the film gradient for film
contrast. This is also highly dependant on development time and temperature
which decreases control per manufacturer (curve).
• The farther to the right that a curve is on the chart, the slower the film speed
(smaller the grain).
• GO TO TEXT page 69 to 86. use of characteristic curves and exposure charts
What graph is this?
• H&D Curve, Sensitometric or
also known as The film
Characteristic curve
Who makes these graphs?
• Manufacturer
What does E and D stand for?
• log relative exposure and
Density-of area of interest
Which film is the fastest- A or B?
• A-Exposed more quickly…
why? larger grains..requires
less radiation interaction
Film characteristic
curve
Density (D)
• Radiographic density is a measure of the degree of film darkening. Technically it should be
called “transmitted density” when associated with transparent-base film since it is a
measure of the light transmitted through the film. The visible image on the film consists of
black metallic silver and the degree of blackening (density) depends upon the intensity and
time (i.e. exposure) type of radiation and above all the developing conditions. The density is
measured by comparing the log of the intensity of light transmitted through the film to the
intensity of the incident light. A film which transmits 1/100 (1%) of the incident light has a
density of 2.0. It can be calculated by the equation:

• D= Log (I0 / lt)

• Where D = Density
• l0 = Intensity of the Incident light on the film. It = Light intensity transmitted

Above is an image of a Calibration Density strip for denisometer/denisity verification.

Known densities on a film strip are used to check the reading on your densitometer.
Densitometer is used in radiography to check film density to meet code requirements
 Film, cassettes and film density
• Only vacuum packed film and lead screens provide the closest contact
between film and lead. Therefore definition is greater than with loose screens.
• Film can come as non-interleaved or interleaved and in various sizes.
• Films and screens can be held in sleeves, holders of various materials for
various applications or to aid in protection of the film and screens. Called
Cassettes. The cassette ( holder/sleeve) can be marked as to which side is
source side and have cross hairs or other tracings to help the radiographer
i.e./outlines for identifications etc.
• Radiographic density refers to the amount of film blackening. Density= log
( light intensity incident on film/ light transmitted through the film)
• This shows that an increase in density of 0.3 reduces the light transmitted to ½
the original value.
• A densitometer measures the amount of light transmitted through the film –
photographic density.