RESEARCH DESIGN

MODULE II
Important concepts relating to Research Design

 Variable: A concept which can take different

quantitative values is called a variable.
For example : weight ,height and income.

 Inresearch, variable is a factor that can be

manipulated and measured.

 They take on different values which are

observed and measured to draw conclusion
about the subject under study.
 Continuous variables : Phenomena which
can take on quantitatively different values
even in decimal points are called
‘continuous variables’.
Eg: Age

 Discrete variables : Those variables which

can only be expressed in integer values are
called ‘discrete variables’ or non-continuous
variables.
Eg: Number of Children
 An independent variable is the variable that
is changed or controlled to determine the
value of the dependent variable.
 If one variable depends upon or is a
consequence of the other variable, it is
termed as a dependent variable.
 For example, height depends on age. Here,
age is the independent variable and height is
the dependent variable.
 We say, demand depends on price. In this
case, price is the independent variable and
demand is the dependent variable.
Extraneous variables : Independent
variables, that are not related to the
purpose of study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as
‘extraneous variables’.
For example, to test plant growth at
different temperature levels. The
dependent variable is plant growth,
independent variable is temperature
level and the soil type and amount of
water are the extraneous variables.
 Another example, to study the impact of
chocolates on the increase in weight of the
children.
 A researcher can study this by feeding
different quantities of chocolates to different
children and observing the increase in weight.
 Here, the quantity of chocolate in the diet of a
child is the independent variable, the weight
of the child a dependent variable.
 Other factors such as the original weight, the
living conditions of the child are termed as
extraneous variables.
Control : When the study is designed by
minimizing the extraneous independent
variables, the technical term ‘control’ is
used.

Research hypothesis : The research

hypothesis is a predictive statement that
relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable. When a prediction
is to be tested by scientific methods, it is
termed as research hypothesis.
Hypothesis–testing research : When the
purpose of the research is to test a research
hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research.
 It can be of the experimental design or of
the non-experimental design.
 Research in which the independent variable
is manipulated is called the experimental
hypothesis-testing research and a research
in which the independent variable is not
manipulated is called the non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research.
 The independent variable varies between
conditions and the dependent variable is the
“outcome” variable ,it is the outcome that is being
measured.
 For example, Imagine you believe that high
communication skills enhances individual
confidence.
 Here, the independent variable is communication
skills and dependent variable is individual
confidence.
 For experimental testing, a sample of people are
selected and are divided into two groups: and one
group is given communication training and the
other group does not receive any.
 At the end of the training period, you can
see if there is a difference in individual
confidence between the group that
received the communication training and
those who didn't. 
 In a non-experimental research, we just
separate them into two groups: high
communication skills and low
communication skills, and then you see if
there is a difference in the two groups in
terms of individual confidence.
Experimental and control groups: In an
experimental hypothesis-testing research
when a group is exposed to usual
conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’,
but when the group is exposed to some
special condition it is termed an
‘experimental group’.
Treatment : The different conditions
under which the experimental and
control groups are put are usually
referred to as ‘treatments’.
 Experiment : The process of examining the
truth of a statistical hypothesis related to
some research problem, is known as an
experiment. Experiments can be of two
types : absolute experiment and comparative
experiment.
 For example, to determine the impact of a
fertilizer on the yield of a crop ,it is absolute
experiment . If we want to determine the
impact of one fertilizer compared to some
other fertilizer, then it is a comparative
experiment.
 Types of Research Designs
 Based on the fundamental objectives or
purposes, research design can be
classified into:

1) Research design for Exploratory research

studies
2) Research design in case of Descriptive
and Diagnostic research studies
3) Research design in case of Experimental
Studies (hypothesis-testing research
studies
Research design in case of Exploratory
or Formulative research studies

 Applied when the researcher is not

acquainted with the problem.
 Aims at gaining familiarity with a new
phenomenon.
 A specific problem or hypothesis is
formulated from an operational
observation.
 Thus also called formulative studies.
The following methods are used
for exploratory research:

a) Survey of literature
b) Experienced survey
c) Analysis of insight stimulating
experiences
Research design in case of Descriptive
and Diagnostic research studies
 Aim is to obtain complete and
accurate information.
 Less biased and more reliable
information, with due concern for the
economical completion of the
research study.
 Firstly, the objective of study is
formulated.
 Selecting the sample.
 Designing the methods of data
collection.
 Processing and analysing the data.
 Reporting the findings.
Research design in case of experimental
or hypothesis-testing research studies

 Experiment is the procedure for gaining

knowledge by collecting observation
under controlled conditions.
 The researcher tests a causal
hypothesis.
 A causal hypothesis is one that states
the cause and effect relationship
between two or more variables.
 Explains the structure of an
experiment.
 Involve plans for testing of the causal
hypothesis.
 Decides the number of observations to
be taken and also the order in which
experiments are to be carried out.
 Which mathematical model to be used
for explaining the experiment.
 Basic Principles of Experimental
Research Design

Principle of Replication
Principle of Randomization
Principle of Locus Control
Principle of Replication – The experiment is
repeated, treatment is applied in many
experimental units. It is done in order to
increase the accuracy of the experiment.
Principle of Randomization – It considers the
extraneous variables that may occur in the
experiment and can control the systematic
error.
Principle of Locus Control – The extraneous
variable is made to vary deliberately and
,such that it can be calculated and eliminated
from the systematic error.
 Procedure of Experimental Research
design
Experimental Research design involves
the following steps:
1) Construction of experimental and
control groups
2) Pre-test
3) Exposure of the experimental groups to
the experimental variable
4) Post-test
 Classification of Experimental Design

The Experimental Design can be classified

into broad categories namely:
a) Informal Experiment designs
b) Formal Experiment designs
Types of Formal Experimental Design
The formal experimental design can be
further classified into:
i. Completely Randomized design
ii. Randomized block design
iii. Latin square design
iv. Factorial design
i. Completely Randomized design (C.R. design)

 Used when a researcher is investigating the

effect of one independent variable on the
dependent variable.
 Considering different categories of the
independent variable, each category forms
the treatment.
 But, the extraneous variables that could
influence the outcome are not considered in
this design.
Example, sales (dependent variable)of a
product is influenced by the price level
(independent variable).
Considering three levels of price high,
medium and low, the most effective price
levels to be determined.
The test units being the stores, which are
randomly assigned to the three treatment
levels, the average sales for each price level
is computed and examined to calculate the
significance difference in sales at different
price-levels.
The influence of extraneous variables is
not considered, here being the size of
the store, competitor’s pricing and so
on.
This design is very simple and
inexpensive to conduct.
ii. Randomized block design

 In this design, the influence of

extraneous variable is also
considered.
 In the example discussed, considering
three levels of pricing(high, medium
and low) and dividing the stores into
low, medium and high, the extraneous
factor is limited.
 The size of the store is treated as blocks and each
treatment appears in each block atleast once.
 In this experiment ,one might randomly assign 12
small-sized stores to three price levels in such a
way that there are four stores to three price-
levels. Similarly applied to 12 medium and 12
large-sized stores as well.
 Then the technique of analysis of variance could
be employed to analyse the effect of treatment
on the dependent variable and separate out the
influence of the extraneous variable from the
experiment.
iii. Latin square design

 To separate out the influence of two

extraneous variables.
 In the example besides the store-size
another extraneous variable can be type of
packaging.
 Each treatment occurs only once to both the
extraneous variables whose effect is to be
controlled and measured.
 Complex setup and quite expensive.
iv. Factorial design

 To measure the effect of two or more

independent variables at various
levels.(eg,price levels and store-size).
 Different combinations of the
independent variables are formed on
random basis and the interaction
effect is studied.
Types of Informal Experimental Design

 The informal experimental design is

classified into:
i. After only design
ii. After only with control design
iii. Before and after without control design
iv. Before and after with control design
v. Ex post facto design
i. After only design
 This design consists of applying the
experimental variable to an experimental
group and measuring the dependent
variable after the application of the
experimental variable.
 If a manufacturer wants to know the impact
of advertisement on sales, he can compare
the sales of the product after and before
the advertisement.
 Not fully reliable, because sales can
improve due to other factors as well.
ii After-only with control design
 In this design two groups (test group and
control group) are selected and the
treatment is introduced in the test area only.
 The dependent variable is measured in both
the areas at the same time.
 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting
the value of dependent variable in the
control area from its value in the test area.
 The assumption is that the two groups are
exactly similar in all respects.
iii Before and after without control design
 A single test group is selected and the
dependent variable is measured before the
introduction of the treatment.
 The treatment is then introduced and
dependent variable is measured after the
treatment has been introduced.
iv. Before and after with control design
 In this design, two areas are selected and
dependent variable is measured in both the areas
for an identical time-period before the treatment.
 The treatment is then introduced into the test
area only, and the dependent variable is
measured in both for an identical time period
after the introduction of the treatment.
 The treatment effect is determined by subtracting
the change in the dependent variable in the
control area(Z-A) from the change in the
dependent variable in the test area(Y-X) i.e., (Y-X)
– (Z-A).
v. Expost Facto Design
 In this design, the researcher is required to
select two or more groups for his study.
 The event has already taken place in one
group and the other group is free from the
happening of the event.
 Example, to study the impact of metro-rail
in a city.
 For this study, the researcher has to
depend on the past experience.