What is Motherboard

A motherboard is an electronic circuit board in a computer which interconnects

hardware devices attached to it — which is to say, all of the system hardware. At a
minimum it includes one or more Central Processing Units (CPU), and the main
processing activity of the computer takes place on it. However, other connected
printed circuit boards may contain their own pre-processing or post-processing CPUs,
to take some of the load off of the motherboard; these, together with other plug-in
boards without CPUs, may be called "daughter boards". It was called a "mother" board
in relation to these. A PC motherboard generally has a series of slots, allowing daughter
boards to be plugged in directly. Other connectors on the motherboard allow
communication through cables with various peripheral devices, both inside and outside
the computer case.
Acer E360 Socket 939 motherboard
Logical layout of a motherboard
Ports
• Ports are used by a motherboard to interface with electronics both
inside and outside of the computer. Integrated ports are those that
are part of, or directly wired to, the motherboard. Internal integrated
ports are used to connect devices inside the system
unit. External ports may be connected to the motherboard directly
(integrated) or by circuit boards that are inserted into slots on the
motherboard. It is often possible to add new external ports by
inserting such a circuit board into an open slot. The external
integrated ports are generally grouped together as shown below.
Expansion card ports are arranged in a row of equal sized rectangular
slots (see graphics/video and network cards below).
Ports image

1. & 2. PS/2 (mouse,
3. RJ-45 Ethernet 4. USB 5. Serial (terminal, modem)
keyboard)
6. parallel (printer) 7. VGA (monitor) 8. DA-15 (old networking) 9. audio
Some Older External Ports
• PS/2
PS/2 ports were for connecting peripherals such as your mouse (1 above) and keyboard (2 above) to the computer,
but are now outdated. PS/2 based mice and keyboards have now been replaced by USB ports as the popular
standard. This trend for USB over PS/2 started in circa 2004.

• Serial
PS/2 connector
An outdated piece of technology, serial ports (5 above) were most often used to connect the mouse and keyboard.
By circa 2000, most personal computers stopped relying on serial ports and were replaced by PS/2 and/or USB
ports.

Serial connector
• Parallel
Parallel ports (6 above) are used to connect other peripherals such as joysticks, and more commonly, printers.
Similar to the serial port, this technology is slowly being phased out in favor of USB. Parallel ports can still be found
in many motherboards today.

Parallel printer cable

• VGA
A VGA (7 above), or Video Graphics Array, connector is used to connect a monitor or other video equipment. The
same connector is sometimes used for high definition television and is sometimes called an RGB connector. The
modern equivalent is USB and the High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI).
.

VGA cable for monitor

• Audio
The audio input and stereo output ports (9 above) connect to external speakers, a microphone, head sets, and
possibly a game. The external ports are color coded by industry standard.

• Firewire Audio ports

Technically known as the IEEE 1394 interface, but dubbed by Apple as Firewire (not shown above), this connection
medium hoped to surpass USB in terms of speed and popularity. While it did outperform USB v2 in speed tests,
uptake was very limited due to the existing widespread use of USB.
Firewire is the standard for high definition audio and video transfer and may be found on many digital camcorders.
Also known by the brand names i.LINK and Lynx.

Firewire PCI Expansion Card Firewire cables: 4 & 6 circuit

• eSATA [src]
SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) is a computer bus interface for connecting to mass storage
devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives inside the system box. eSATA is an external port for
drives.

• SCSI eSata Cable eSata Port

Pronounced "scuzzy", SCSI (not shown above) was used primarily as a connection interface for tape drives and hard
disk drives. SCSI has been superseded in favor of newer and cheaper technologies such as USB and Firewire in the
home market.
SCSI provides a high-speed (up to 5 Gbps) bus interface that allows up to 8 or 16 devices to be attached. It is still
used for high-end workstations and servers.

SCSI connectors
DA-15
The DA-15 port shown (8 above) has been used for network connectivity and for video output.
Modern External Ports
• RJ-45 (Ethernet)
Wired Ethernet connection (3 above). Looks like a (bigger) telephone/modem jack. The cable itself is referred to by
its category (e.g. CAT 5) and basic type, UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair).

Ethernet cable

• USB
USB (4 above), or Universal Serial Bus, is a connectivity specification, currently at version 3 (V3). They are very
common today, connecting flash drives and many peripherals. Modern desktop systems have should have 4-8 on the
back of the computer and at least two on the front.
USB is one of the most successful interconnect in computing history. V1 operates at 1.5 Mbps (low speed) or 12
Mbps (full speed), V2 (high speed) at 480 Mbps, and V3 (super speed) at up to 5Gbps. It can be found in over 2
billion PC and mobile devices. USB has strong consumer brand recognition and a reputation for ease-of-use.
USB connectors are sometimes used to supply power, generally to recharge hand-held devices like a smartphone.
 USB Connector

Different USB connectors. From left to right: male Micro USB B-Type,
USB connector types proprietary (not USB), male Mini USB (5-pin) B-type, female A-type, male
A-type, male B-type. Shown with a centimeter ruler. Female A-type
connector (4th from left) is "upside down" to show the pins.
• HDMI
The High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) replaces most older analog media interfaces. It is available in
"mini" and "micro" on many portable devices, allowing those smaller screen devices to be displayed on a larger
screen, such as a TV.

HDMI cables connector types for HDMI

• Modem
For many years the telephone, or voice band, modem (not shown above) was the primary means of connecting
desktop and laptop PCs to the Internet. Modems have not gone away, as broadband connections are not available in
all areas, but they are disappearing.
A standard telephone modem uses your existing analog telephone line at speeds up 56 Kbps. The speed is limited by
the quality of the phone line connection — extraneous noise lowers the actual throughput.
Broadband connections (to be discussed in the section on networks) also use modems of a different type. They are
still called modems because their essential function is the same — they convert digital signals to analog and
modulate them on an analog medium when sending information, and reverse this process when receiving it. Hence,
they MOdulate and DEModulate.
Modem ports and connectors look a lot like Ethernet (RJ-45). A lot of networking was initially done with phone
cables. Technically, they are called Category 3 UTP.

External modem How a modem functions Telephone jack with connector

modem implemented
as an internal ISA card
• Slots
On the typical desktop PC, a number of slots are provided on the motherboard (see image above) for
attaching devices. One use of these slots is to expand or add to the ports available for external devices, as
noted above. Graphics, audio and networking may be incorporated on the motherboard, but are often
handled by (daughter) circuit boards added into slots. These are often pre-installed on your computer, but
may be replaced (upgraded) as needed.
Adding devices to laptop computers, after purchase, is problematic. Simply opening and closing the case
can be a challenge and is not recommended for the novice, although manufactures usually provide fairly
easy access to the RAM memory and hard disk. To allow for expansion through external devices, laptops
often have an external slot (or port).

The back of the PC, cards fitted

• Expansion Card
Expansion cards are circuit boards that provide more memory or that control peripheral devices (for graphics,
sound, video, network interface, wireless connection, etc.).
Expansion Cards: If a computer uses closed architecture, no expansion  cards can be added; if the computer
uses open architecture, expansion cards can be inserted in expansion slots inside the computer, connected to the
motherboard.
• An expansion bus is not the same as the frontside bus:
• Frontside bus: The bus that connects the CPU within itself and to main memory.
• Expansion bus: Buses that connect the CPU with expansion slots on the motherboard and thus via ports with
peripheral devices.
• Types of expansion buses:
• PCI: High-speed bus that has been widely used to connect PC graphics cards, sound cards, modems, and high-
speed network cards.
• PCI Express: Doubles the speed of the original PCI bus . PCIe is the latest standard for expansion cards
available on mainstream personal computers.
• Accelerated Graphics: Transmits data at twice the speed of a PCI bus and is designed to support video and 3-
D graphics.
• Graphics Card
Graphics cards are also called video cards or a video adapter. They are in all PCs, but may be integrated on the
motherboard. Graphic cards generate output images that can be displayed on the monitor. While many graphics
cards are built into the motherboard these days, enthusiasts will invest in stand-alone graphics cards with more
powerful processing capabilities. This allows for heavy image editing, or better rendering and frame rates in
computer games.
Graphics cards are designed to offload rendering from the CPU. Graphics cards are powered by the motherboard
and require a PCI-X or PCIe slot to install. Some cards require more power and thus will need a 6-8 pin connector
that runs directly to the power supply. Graphics cards also include on-board memory for efficient rendering. Typical
sizes include 128-1024MB of memory. Today, high end graphics cards have multiple core processors that are largely
parallel to increase texture fill and process more 3D objects in real time.

Graphics Card Model: PNY, nVidia 6600GT

• Sound Card
A sound card, also referred to as an audio card, facilitates the input and output of audio signals to and from a
computer under the control of computer programs. Sound cards for computers were uncommon until 1988, which
left the single internal PC speaker as the only way early PC software could produce sound and music.
Uses of a sound card include the audio component's for multimedia applications such as games, video/audio editing
software and music composition. Most computers today have sound capabilities built into the motherboard, while
others require additional expansion cards.
The external ports are color coded by industry standard.

Creative Labs Soundblaster Live

• Network Interface Card
A Network Interface Card (NIC), also called a network card, network adapter, or LAN Adapter is a piece of computer
hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. Used for remote communication
via cable. Data is transmitted over a cable network. The NIC connects computers to the Internet and other devices,
such as printers. Many modern motherboards have NICs built in by default.
Most laptops also provide a wireless adapter or wireless network interface controller (WNIC). This device allows
your laptop to communicate via a radio transceiver with a wireless (Wi-Fi) network. A WNIC can be added using a
USB port or ExpressCard slot, often available on laptops.

Network card with both BNC "Thinnet" (left) and Ethernet RJ-45 (right) connectors
• What is a Computer Bus?
A computer bus carries data from one device to another. It's more like an electricity bus than the vehicle. In terms of
vehicles, the (computer) bus would be the road being traveled, with the vehicles on the road being the data. 
Serial busses allow one vehicle at a time, while parallel busses support multiple vehicles. Modern serial busses are
faster because the data (vehicles) travel at a greater speed.
• Types of Computer Bus
There are a variety of buses found inside the computer.
I. Data Bus: The data bus allows data to travel back and forth between the microprocessor (CPU) and memory
(RAM).
II. Address Bus: The address bus carries information about the location of data in memory.
III. Control Bus : The control bus carries the control signals that make sure everything is flowing smoothly from
place to place.
IV. Expansion Bus: If your computer has expansion slots, there's an expansion bus. Messages and information
pass between your computer and the add-in boards you plug in over the expansion bus. 
The speed at which buses conduct signals is measured in megahertz (Mhz). Typical PCs today run at speeds between
20 and 65Mhz. Also see CPU, Expansion Card, Memory, Motherboard, RAM, ROM, and System Unit.
• Microprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single 
integrated circuit (IC, or microchip). It is a multipurpose, programmable, clock-driven, register based electronic
device that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides
results as output.
That concise description includes only one term we haven't covered and one fairly important concept. A register is
local, temporary storage. When the processor needs to add a couple of numbers, the numbers need to be stored
locally, as does the answer. They are stored in registers.
The clock acts a metronome that synchronizes (almost) all of the activity on a computer. The faster the clock ticks,
the faster things occur. This is a key specification when buying (or upgrading) a system. Clock speed is measured in
Hertz (cycles per second), so a bigger number is better. Current PC clocks run in the GHz (gigahertz or billions of
cycles per second) range, while hand-held devices tend to be in the MHz (megahertz or millions of cycles per
second) range.

Intel 4004, the first general-purpose, commercial microprocessor

Computer history at a glance
• Multicore processors (2, 4, 6, 8) have more than one processor “core” on a single silicon chip which allows
computers to run faster.

Intel(R) Core(TM)2 Duo AMD Athlon X2 Dual-Core Processor 6400+ in AM2 package

•  A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialized processor used to manipulate three-dimensional(3-D) computer
graphics.
• Processing Speed 
• Every microprocessor contains a system clock, which controls how fast all the operations within a computer take
place (the chip’s processing speed).
• Older CPU processing speeds are in megahertz.
• 1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second
• Current CPU processing speeds are in gigahertz.
• 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second
• The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it generates
• Word size
• Earlier, we talked about a byte as the important grouping of (8) bits in a computer. The size of a word on a
computer is a changing thing. As indicated above, a word is the number of bits that the CPU can read or write all
at once, in one instruction cycle. Word size for PCs (workstations, mainframes and supercomputers vary) has
changed from 16 bits, to 32 bits, and is now changing to 64 bits.
• The more bits that can be processed at once, the more that can be done in one cycle. One number often uses 32
or 64 bits. (Recall that 8 bits only has 256 possible values!) A smaller word size would mean we have to read
multiple times to get a single number, just one of the values to be added. Hence, a larger word size means faster
operations.

Highway 401 with 9 lanes in one direction. More lanes, means more cars (bits, if you see the analogy) per unit time.
• Cache memory [src]
• Like RAM (to be discussed in more detail), cache memory is temporary, or volatile, memory. If the
processor is a doctor, and RAM is the big waiting room with everyone in it, then cache is like the
examining room that you still have to wait in before the doctor arrives.
• Cache briefly stores data that the processor will use soon. This is done so that while working the
computer does not have to always fetch instructions directly from RAM, speeding the process up. There
are three types of cache memory. They include level 1, level 2 and level 3. The first level cache is
called internal cache. L1 cache is part of the microprocessor chip itself. It's closest, so it is fastest, and
generally smallest (often 16-64 KB, though as much as 2 MB). Small is not necessarily bad here - your
doctor would not process patients faster with twice (or ten) times as many examining rooms.
• L1 cache was the first developed (thus the number), but didn't satisfy our need for the volume of data
that we needed to process quickly. So Level 2 cache was developed. It is external cache
(usually separate from the microprocessor), but has more memory (from 64 KB to 2MB). In the waiting
room analogy, RAM would be like a very large shared waiting room for multiple doctors. L2 cache would
be the smaller waiting room they ship you to for a specific doctor, while L1 is still the examining rooms.
• For speed, L2 cache is now sometimes also included on the processor chip. The final level L3, is on the
motherboard - kind of between the processor and RAM. Cache memory is searched in order for the
data being sought.
• Why don't we just use a really large cache? The bigger it is, the slower it is (generally). And it is more
expensive. The systems designers try to balance everything to give you good overall performance.
 Generic dual core model
Medical supplies analogy for levels of memory

Speeding up Processing: Cache
• The CPU works much faster than RAM, so it often must wait for information
• Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the processor uses frequently to speed up processing
• Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor
• Holds 8 to 128 KB
• Faster than Level 2 cache
• Level 2 cache is external cache
• Holds 64 kb to 16 MB
• Level 3 cache is on the motherboard
• Comes on very high-end computers
• Holds 2 to 8 MB
• Moore's Law [src]

Moore's law describes a long-term trend in the history of computing hardware. The number of transistors
that can be placed inexpensively on an integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. This trend
has continued for more than half a century but is now slowing because we are reaching the limits of
(current) technology.

Memory capacity and processor speed are directly related to the number of transistors and how far apart
they are. The key point you can get from this graph is the likely speed up you will get by replacing (or
upgrading) the CPU after a few years. Since most people don't upgrade the CPU, this adds to the argument
for replacing a system that is several years old.
Moore's Law
The Memory
• Memory 
Two type of storage: primary and secondary.
• Primary storage = “memory,” “main memory,” “RAM”; this type of memory is temporary and
volatile.
• Secondary storage = hard disks and flash memory units; this type of memory is
relatively permanent and nonvolatile
• There are several type for memory chips such as :
• RAM = Random Access Memory chips
• Software instructions
• Data before & after the CPU processes it
• ROM = Read Only Memory
• Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment
• Are loaded at factory with fixed (permanent) start-up instructions (BIOS), that tell the computer how to load the
operating system
• CMOS = Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
• Powered by a battery
• Contains time, date, calendar, boot password
• Flash
• Doesn’t require a battery
• Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions
• Speed and Types of RAM (Primary storage )
Most computers use dynamic RAM (as opposed to the more expensive, but faster static RAM) for main memory in
the computer. Currently, computers tend to use DDR-1, DDR-2 or DDR-3 RAM chips. All are a type of synchronous
dynamic RAM (SDRAM) with each generation becoming progressively faster. Obviously, for the best performance,
you want DDR-3. All forms of RAM are fast compared to disk drives and other mass storage devices, outperforming
them by a factor of 1,000 times or more. (Solid State Drives are a special case discussed below.)
RAM chips are manufactured as circuit boards (dual in-line memory modules) that are slotted into the motherboard

3 (SDRAM) DIMM slots

DDRAM memory modules

• Virtual memory
 Both the operating system and all of your applications (along with their data) need to be in RAM for you to use
them. What happens when RAM fills up? Or, a related problem, there isn't a big enough chunk of RAM available
to fit an entire application into?

 Virtual memory solves these problems using a special (swap or page) file on the hard disk. Pieces (called a page)
of an application that is not currently being used can be moved temporarily to the swap file, making more room
available in physical RAM. When that part of the program is needed, it is taken from the swap file and placed back
into RAM, possibly displacing some other page from RAM. The two pages are said to have been "swapped".

 This scheme allows the computer to pretend that it has much more RAM than it actually does, at a significant
performance cost. RAM is about 1,000 times faster than the hard disk, so the process of swapping pages slows the
system down. In the worst case, called thrashing, the computer is spending an inordinate amount of its time
simply moving pages back and forth from RAM to the swap file. The only practical remedy for this situation is to
add additional physical RAM – or quit using so many apps at the same time.
• Used to speed up processing.

• This type of memory is unused hard disk or optical (CD) space that the processor uses to extend the capacity of
RAM

• The processor goes first to L1 cache, then L2 cache, then RAM, then virtual memory.

• Each type of memory is slower than its predecessor.

• ROM = Read Only Memory
• Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment(UV ray)
• Are loaded at factory with fixed (permanent) start-up instructions (BIOS), that tell the computer how to load the operating system

• CMOS = Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

• Powered by a battery
• Contains time, date, calendar, boot password

• Flash
• Doesn’t require a battery
• Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions
• UEFI

The Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is found on newer computers and is intended to
replace the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) interface.

UEFI is designed to improve software interoperability and address limitations of BIOS. Some advantages
of UEFI firmware include:

Better security by helping to protect the pre-start-up – or pre-boot – process against bootkit attacks.

Faster start-up times and resuming from hibernation.

Support for drives larger than 2.2 terabytes (TB).

Support for modern, 64-bit firmware device drivers that the system can use to address more than 17.2 billion
gigabytes (GB) of memory during start-up.

Capability to use BIOS with UEFI hardware.

Note that a newer computer which has UEFI uses a new partition style called GPT (GUID Partition Table)
on its storage device (Hard Drive etc) but can also use the older MBR (Master Boot Record) partition
style by selecting 'Legacy Mode' in the UEFI (CMOS setup page).
The Secondary Memory
(Secondary Storage)
• Hard Disk 

The major secondary storage for desktop computer. 

Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held in the form of
magnetized spots.
 The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity.
 Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters.
 Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to clusters.
 Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash.
 Important data should always be backed up.
• There are several types for the hard disk such as : 

 Non-removable hard disk – Also known as a fixed disk; is housed in the microcomputer system unit and is
used to store nearly all programs and most data files. Usually consists of several metallic or glass platters,
from 1 to 5.25 inches (most commonly 3.5 inches) in diameter, stacked on a spindle, with data stored on both
sides. 

 External hard disk – Freestanding disk drive (portable); usually connected via USB.

 RAID – redundant array of independent disks; for large computer systems.

• Optical Disk 
CDs (compact disks) and DVDs (digital versatile/video disks) are optical disks.
DVDs hold more data then CDs do.
Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk read/write head.
 CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory; content is prerecorded.
 CD-R (compact disk-recordable) is used for recording only once.
 CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable)is an erasable optical disk that can both record and erase data over and over
again.
 DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity.
 DVD-R (DVD-recordable) is used for recording only once.
 DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs.
 Blu-ray is an optical-disk format used to record, rewrite, and play back high-definition (HD) video, as well as
to store large amounts of data.
• Flash & Solid State Storage 
 Flash memory and solid-state memory have become the most important form of mobile secondary storage.
o Disk drives (hard disks or CDs/DVDs) all involve some moving parts—and moving parts can break. By contrast, flash memory
has no moving parts; it is “solid state.” Flash memory is also nonvolatile—it retains data even when the power is turned off.
 Flash memory media are available in three forms:
• Some tablets, laptops, desktops, and servers feature a solid-state drive (SSD), which uses flash memory to store data,
instructions ,and information. 
• Flash memory cards, or flash RAM cards, are removable and reusable storage media that are inserted into a flash memory
slot in a digital camera, notebook, smartphone, or other mobile device.
• A USB flash drive consists of a finger-size module of reusable flash memory that plugs into the USB ports of nearly any
microcomputer.
 Smart Card: pocket-size card with integrated circuits.
• Resembles a credit card but contains a microprocessor and memory chips
• May function on three levels:  credit, debit, and/or personal information
• Storage capacity: around 10 MBs
• Contact smart cards
• Must be swiped through card readers
• Can wear out from use
• Contactless smart cards
• Read when held in front of a low-powered laser
• Online Secondary Storage ( Cloud Storage ) 

 Allows you to use the Internet to back up your data

 Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software and applications that allow you to upload your data to that
company’s server