Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability

among all groups of living organisms and the

ecosystem complexes in which they occur

• How much of Biodiversity is there

on earth?
• How many species?
• Scientists have identified more than 2 million
species. Tens of millions -- remain unknown
• The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made
possible by complex interactions among all living
things including microscopic species like algae and
mites.
• The diversity exists in different levels

2
 Three levels of Biodiversity
Genetic: Variation in genes within same species

Species: Variations found in the population of species

or different species of a community in a given area

Ecosystem: Variations in food webs, nutrient cycles,

tropic structure etc - developed along with evolution
 Genetic Diversity
• Variations in genes within same species
• Basic source of Biodiversity
• In the pictures all are dogs but different genes so
different names
• Other examples – Varieties of rice, varieties of
banana

4
 Species Diversity

• Variations found in the population of species or

different species of a community in a given area.
• Monkeys, dragonflies and meadow beauties are all
different species

Saki Monkey Golden Skimmer Meadow Beauty5

 Ecosystem Diversity
• Variations in the ecosystem. Examples: Prairie, rain
forests and ponds
• Also show variations in physical parameters

Paines Prairie Hoh Rain Forest Florida Sand hill

Pond
 Global Biodiversity
• More than 10 million species are believed to exist
on land.
• Only 2 million identified and named scientifically.
• Terrestrial diversity – the largest ecological units
present in different biomes.
• Aquatic diversity – Marine species are expected to
be more than what is known so far.
• Biodiversity is decreasing – due to tropical
deforestration – 0.2 % (20,000 species every year)
 Indian Biodiversity
• 6 % of the world’s species exist in India – 10th among
plant richness and 11th in terms of endemic species.
• 6th place in origin of agricultural crops.
Threats to Biodiversity
• Habitat destruction
• Poaching
• Man-wildlife conflicts
• Pollution
• Species Introductions
• Global Climate Changes
• Exploitation
 Loss of Habitat: Is the largest cause

– Forests and grasslands have been cleared for

• Agriculture,
• Pasturing,
• Human settlement and
• For development projects
– In India forests are lost at a rate of 0.6 % per year
 Factor influencing Habitat loss

• Habitat fragmentation:
– Small regions of forest are
removed for
• roads,
• urbanization,
• agriculture
– It results in division of
forests into smaller
fragments
– Some animals need large
territories (eg: Bear, tiger)
– When forests are divided
these animals cannot
survive
 Deforestation
cutting trees for timber, removal of medicinal plants,
construction of dam.

 Raw materials
production of hybrid seeds – wild plants used as raw
materials. As a result plant species become
endangered.

 Production of drugs
– wild plants – used for production of drugs
- therefore several medicinal plant become extinct.
Wet lands are often destroyed due to
– Draining
– Filling
– Pollution
 Poaching
• Killing/hunting of animals

• Illegal trade of wild life

– Despite ban, animals are
killed for Furs, horns,
tusks, skins (crocodile)
– Live specimens are
smuggled

• Subsistence poaching: Killing animals for food

• Commercial poaching : Hunting & killing animals to sell their
products
 Man-Wildlife conflicts
 Man-wildlife conflicts arise
When wildlife starts – cause immense damage and danger to
the man.
Such condition, very difficult for the forest department to
compromise the affected villagers & gain village support for
wild life conservations.
Examples
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa
– 200 humans killed by elephants.
- In retaliation the villagers killed 100 elephants
2. Man eating tiger - In Royal Chitwan National park,
Kathmandu
In 2004 - 20 Nepalese people were killed - 1 four year old
child
 Man-Wildlife conflicts
In Jan 2014 Tiger, which had killed three people near
Ooty, shot dead

Tiger attack: Daily-wagers in villages near Ooty suffer

 Remedy?
• Tiger conservation projects: Making available
tranquilizers, binoculars and radio sets etc to deal
with danger
• Solar powered fencing instead of electric
• Croping near forests should be prevented
• Adequate food should be made available for animals
within the forest
• Wild animal hunting rituals should be stopped
 Endangered species

A species is
• Extinct: if not seen for 50 years
• Endangered: if its habitat is reduced to a
level that it will not survive unless protected
• Vulnerable: If it population is continuously
decreasing
• Rare species: Thinly scattered over a more
extensive area.
 Endangered species of India

• About 215 species

of animals in India
are considered to
be threatened for
extinction
• These include
reptiles, birds,
carnivores,
mammals, primates
and plants
 Values of Biodiversity

What do we get from biodiversity?

What are the benefits of biodiversity?

It has intrinsic values – something that has value in

and of itself.
It has utilitarian values – It is useful to others
 Utilitarian values
• Consumptive use values
• Productive use values
• Social values
• Ethical values
• Aesthetic values
• Option values
• Ecosystem service values
 Consumptive use value
Biodiversity products are consumed directly.

• Food from animals – cattle, pigs, chickens,

buffaloes, ducks – all are originally from forests and
tames by humans.
• Plants, greens and vegetables – all our food crops
are originally from forests.
• Fish – belongs to water bodies.
• Herbal medicines, medicines extracted from plants
(1/4th of the drugs are extracted from tropical
plants and organisms. Eg. Tetracycline, quinine,
cancer drugs from periwinkle
• Fuels
 Productive use values
Commercially usable - marketed

 Lumber
 Wild gene resources – native types
 Tusks of elephants
 Musk from deer
 Silk from silkworms
 Wool from sheep

Their respective industries are Paper, silk, textiles,

leather and pearl.
One of the main reasons for deforestation
 Cultural and social values
 Customs, religion and psycho-spiritual related
values
 Certain plants are worshiped or used to worship
• Holy basal (Tulsi), Mango leaves
• Palm tress in Egypt
- Native type
 Dance of tribal people are often related to wildlife
- snakes, fish, cow, peacock, etc.
 Cows and snakes are worshiped
 Ethical values – also known as existence
values
Having affection for our other living beings and
feeling that all life should be preserved.
We do not use several of plants and animal species
directly. But still we feel that they should not go to
extinction.
 Aesthetic values
Which do you like better?

Aesthetic value: We like nature’s diversity. We like

the variety of species around us
 Ecosystem service values
Services provided by ecosystem like
• Maintenance of soil fertility
• Cycling of nutrients
• Contribution to water cycle
• Pollution breakdown and absorption (Eg. CO2 is
absorbed by forests)
• Contribution to climate stability
• Recovery from disaster
 Hot spots of biodiversity
Areas which exhibit high species richness as well
as high species endemism are termed as hot spots
of biodiversity.

Criteria for recognizing hot spots are

• Richness of the endemic species
• Should have a significant percentage of
specialized species.
 Hot spots of the world and India
• There are 35 hotspots in the world
• Four of them are in India

• They are Indo Burma, Sundalands, Western Ghats

and Eastern Himalayas
 Should we be concerned about
biodiversity?
What we know:
The Earth is losing species at an alarming rate

• Some scientists estimate that as many as 3

species per hour are going extinct and 20,000
extinctions occur each year.
• When species of plants and animals go extinct,
many other species are affected.
 Some important terms
 Endangered species: Species in danger of
extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the
causal factors continue operating.
 Extinct species: Used for species which are no
longer known to exist in the world.
 Vulnerable species: Species believed like to join
the endangered category in near future.
 Rare species: Species with small population that
are not at present endangered or vulnerable but
are at risk.
 India as a mega-diversity nation

What makes India a mega-biodiversity nation?

 Species richness
 Species endemism
 Biogeographically different regions
 Hot spots
 Biodiversity conservation efforts
 India as a mega-diversity nation
Hot Spots

• It has four of the world’s 35 hot spots.

• It is home for 33 % of life forms found in the

world.
• Only 2 % of land mass but 8 % of biodiversity
Threats to Biodiversity
• Habitat destruction
• Poaching
• Man-wildlife conflicts
• Pollution
• Species introductions
• Global Climate Changes
• Exploitation
 Loss of Habitat: Is the largest cause

– Forests and grasslands have been cleared for

• Agriculture,
• Pasturing,
• Human settlement and
• For development projects
– In India forests are lost at a rate of 0.6 % per year
 Factor influencing Habitat loss

• Habitat fragmentation:
– Small regions of forest are
removed for
• roads,
• urbanization,
• agriculture
– It results in division of
forests into smaller
fragments
– Some animals need large
territories (eg: Bear, tiger)
– When forests are divided
these animals cannot
survive
 Deforestation
cutting trees for timber, removal of medicinal plants,
construction of dam.

 Raw materials
production of hybrid seeds – wild plants used as raw
materials. As a result plant species become
endangered.

 Production of drugs
– wild plants – used for production of drugs
- therefore several medicinal plant become extinct.
Wet lands are often destroyed due to
–Draining
–Filling
–Pollution
 Man-Wildlife conflicts
 Man-wildlife conflicts arise
When wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to
the man
Such condition, very difficult for the forest department to
compromise the affected villagers & gain village support for
wild life conservations.
Examples
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa
– 200 humans killed by elephants.
- In retaliation the villagers killed 100 elephants
2. Man eating tiger - In Royal Chitwan National park,
Kathmandu
In 2004 - 20 Nepalese people were killed - 1 four year old
child
 Man-Wildlife conflicts
In Jan 2014 Tiger, which had killed three people near
Ooty, shot dead

Tiger attack: Daily-wagers in villages near Ooty suffer

 Conservation of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity can be preserved by the combined
effect of several actions
• Its not only to protect the endangered species
legally but also increase their number by scientific
method
• 1986 – World commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) by the general assembly of
United Nation was formed to protect the
biodiversity in tropical area
Conservation of Biodiversity

• National Conservation Programmes

• Approaches and Strategies

 In-situ conservation
 Ex-situ conservation

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 Types of Biodiversity Conservation

• In situ and Ex situ

In situ = within/on site
In situ conservation means within habitat

• Ex situ = Outside / off site

Ex situ conservation means outside habitat
 In situ
• Protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat.
Ex: Biosphere reserves, National parks, wild-life
sanctuaries & Botanical gardens

• National park: An area dedicated for the conservation

of wildlife along with its environment
– Usually dedicated to one species

• Wildlife sanctuaries: Protected areas where killing or

capturing is prohibited. Forest operations are allowed
to the extent they do not harm wildlife
 Ex situ conservation
• Protection of flora and fauna outside its natural
habitat.
• This type of conservation is mainly done for the crop
varieties
• Gene banks and seed banks
• Indian gene/seed banks
– National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),
Delhi: Agricultural and horticultural crops and their
wide relatives are cryo preserved
• Eg: Tomato, Varieties of Rice, pearl millet, turnip
etc
– National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources
(NBAGR), Karnal, Haryana: Semen of bovine animals
– National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository:
Development facility for conservation by tissue
culture
 In-situ conservation
• Biosphere reserves
• National parks
• Wildlife sanctuaries
• Conservation reserves
• Tiger reserves
• Seed stands and seed production areas
• Plus trees
Ex-situ conservation
• Botanical gardens
• Arboreta
• Herbal gardens
• Clonal repositories
• Plant herbarium
• Provenance trials
• Seed orchards

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 In-situ conservation
1. Biosphere reserves: Following the “man and
biosphere” approach, 4 sites have been identified –
covering an area of 49012.62 sq km.
Example: Thar desert, Sundarbans, Gulf of Mannar,
etc.

2. National parks: There are 97 existing national

parks in India covering an area of 38,199.47 sq km,
which is 1.16 % of the geographical area of the
country. In addition to the above 74 national parks
are proposed covering an area of 16,630.08 sq km
in the protected area network.
Example: Kaziranga, Periyar, Bandipur, etc.
 In-situ conservation
3. Wild life sanctuaries: There are 508 wildlife
santuaries covering an area of 118,236.94 sq km,
which is 3.6 % of the geographical area. Another
217 sanctuaries are proposed in the Protected
Area Network Report covering an area of
16,669.44 sq km.
Example: Mudumalai, Nal sarover, Jaldapara, etc.
4. Tiger reserves: Project tiger was launched in the
year 1973 to save the tiger. Starting from 9
reserves in 1973 -74. The number has grown up to
29 in 2006. A total of 38,620 sq km is covered by
these project tiger area, which is 1.17 % of the
total geographical area.
Example: Periyar, Kanha, Corbett, etc.
 In-situ conservation

5. Seed orchards and seed production areas: The

best natural stands or plantation that are near full
stocking are used for the development of seed
production areas. One of the important component is
the improvement of seed quality.

6. Plus tress: Tree Plus selection is one of the method

to conserve diversity at species level.
Plus tree is a phenotypically superior tree. It is the
utilization part of gene conservation
 Ex-situ conservation
1. Botanical gardens:
• India has more than 100 botanical gardens under
different management systems located in different
bio-geographical regions.
• Central and state government manage 33 botanical
gardens that maintain the diversity in the form of
plants or plant populations
Ex-situ conservation

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 Ex-situ conservation

3. Herbal gardens:
 Refers to the gardens that conserve herbs, shrubs
that are of medicinal values and aromatic values.
 The concept of herbal gardens has been picked up
by the NGOs in India.
 Several institutions, State Forests Departments
and NGOs in different parts of the country, have
established herbal gardens.
55
 Ex-situ conservation
5. Provenance Trials:
 Provenance trials help in explanation of gene
resources called gene ecological explanation.
 More than 90 species provenance trials have been
established in different parts of India to screen
out best provenance for raising new plantations
with increased productivity.
 Provenances are collected from different
geographical, ecological and environmental
conditions and play an important role in gene
conservation.
 Ex-situ conservation
 6. Seed Orchards:
 Seed orchards contribute greatly to the
production of quality planting stock of the desired
species.
 These are plantations established primarily for the
production of seed of proven genetic quality.
 Establishment of seed orchards is part of long –
term conservation management program and also a
long term breeding program.
 Ex-situ conservation
7. Zoos and aquariums:
 Captive breeding programs of endangered animals
 Semen banks
 Zoo Authority of India
 164 recognized zoos
 Laboratory for Conservation of Endangered
species, Hyderabad
 Captive breeding of Red Panda and its
restocking into the wild
 Genetically Modified (GM) Crops

What is a GM crop?

GM crops are genetically improved and contain

a gene or genes from the same or a different
species artificially inserted in its genome.

Tissue Culture & Transformation – gives the

maximum flexibility for moving genes within or
between species.
 CHALLENGES AHEAD

•Population in 2050 AD: 1.5 B

•Shrinking area of cultivated land
•Diminishing water resources
•Malnutrition and undernourishment
•Deterioration in soil quality
•Climate change (global warming)
 History of crop improvement

• By trial and error for almost 9900 years

• By scientific principles of breeding for last 100

years

• By chemical induced mutation for last 75 years

• By rDNA technology last 25 years

 Leaf Disk Transformation

Leaf Disk Preparation Co-cultivation with Transformation

Agrobacterium

Regeneration Acclimatization
 Traditional Cross Breeding - an
Artificial Selection
• Used to modify genetic characteristics of populations
of species
Example: Dogs, cats, cows, mangoes, flowers
• It is a slow process
• Can be done only between species that are genetically
close
 Genetic engineering is also an artificial
selection
• Isolation, modification, multiplication and
recombination of genes from genetically different
organisms possible
• Enables transfer of genes from different species
that never interbreed – result is genetically
engineered or genetically modified organism
 Advantages of genetic engineering

• Faster than traditional cross breeding

• Costs lesser

• Allows transfer of traits between genetically

different plants or animals
 Some achievements by genetic
engineers
• Pest-resistant plants
• Genetically modified bacteria to clean oil
spills
• Chickens that lay less cholesterol eggs
• Tomatoes with genes to prevent some types
of cancer
• Cloning?
• Gene therapy?
Gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses
genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this
technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by
inserting a gene into a patient’s cells instead of using
drugs or surgery
Cloning is the process of producing similar populations
of genetically identical individuals that occurs in
nature
 Genetically modified (GM) crops
 GM crops gain increasing popularity
 USA, Canada, Argentina, Brazil and China – produce GM
crops
 Two types of GM crops
- Herbicide tolerant crops – farmers can us herbicides
to wipeout weeds
- Pest-resistant crops – produce some toxins to kill
insects
How are GM crops made?
How are GM crops made?
 Why GM crops?
 GM crops are needed to feed growing population
 GM crops are healthier
 GM crops are produced in more efficient,
environmental friendly way
 Bt- Cotton

 Bt-cotton - First GM crop – 2002

 Second in global cotton production
 Area – 8.0 million hectares – 2008
 Yield gain - 31%
 Reduction in pesticide sprays – 39%
NUTRITIONAL QUALITY
“Golden Rice”

* Expression of enzymes of
β-carotene pathway in rice
endosperm
*Amelioration of Vitamin- A
deficiency
GM Crops Controversy
 Why GM crops are not welcome?
• Nobody knows the future effects – like the effect of
pesticides
• The genes can escape to other plants – produce
“super weeds”
• May be harmful to good insects and to ecosystem
• Some people claim that it is against nature
• Enough food is already produced - 1.5 times of what
is required UN study – no need for GM crops
 Brinjal – Some Facts
• Second most cultivated vegetable in India
• Eaten by almost all Indians
• Cultivated over 5 lakh hectares
• Annual yield 8 lakh tonnes

So the company producing brinjal wants to

enter into GM brinjal to get financial benefits
 What does GM brinjal contain?

• GM brinjal has a foreign gene from Bacillus

thuringenesis (Bt)
• The plant can produce its own pesticide to kill
fruit and shoot borer

So the company claims that farmers

no need to use pesticides
 Why should we worry about
GM brinjal?
• Antibiotic resistance – the gene package is resistant to
Neomycin and Streptomycin
• Toxicity of proteins released
• Not tested for allergic reactions
• No long term safety tests conducted
• Babies have higher risk – but not tested
• Ecological imbalance – killing of other insects
• Loss of consumer choice – we cannot differentiate
between GM and native brinjal
• Farmer’s seed sovereignty under threat
• Possibility of gene contamination
• Price raise
• Regulatory problems