GROUP 4: SCIENCE

FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
1.ECONOMIC GROWTH
AND SECURITY
 *The first objectives of development are to reduce poverty and ensure an adequate standard
of living for all members of society. This involves meeting basic material needs such as those for
food, housing, education, and health and medical care, as well as certain nonmaterial
requirements such as the ability to participate in economic and political decisions affecting the
course of one’s life. Economic growth is a necessary but by no means sufficient condition for
setting in motion the development process. While mainstream development economists
have tended to discount the role of the security sector in Third World development,
other analysts have presented theories about the ways in which the security sector
influences economic and political development, for both good and ill. As is often the
case in the social sciences, however, the development of theoretical constructs has
tended to take precedence over the search for facts. In some instances, the general
propositions set forward—meant to apply to all countries—have been built on a very
narrow empirical base. In other cases, the empirical evidence is stronger. In the
industrialized countries, security issues are viewed primarily from the perspective of
potential external conflicts, and the role of the armed forces is to protect
governments and citizens alike against external threats. In the Third World, internal
security considerations often tend to outweigh those of external security, and the
foremost task of many armed forces is to protect governments and elite groups
against the mass of the population.
 +5 SA GAPAMATI KAG GAHIPOS PARA SA QUIZ
*Not all societies place equal importance on the collection and dissemination of data. Third World
countries are generally less well equipped for these activities than Western industrialized ones. In addition,
the collection of data is frequently not accorded the same priority in the Third World as in the West. Some
developing countries have also opted for what might be termed the East-bloc pattern of data
dissemination: the fewer data published, the better. Prior to the Korean War, it was widely believed
that high levels of expenditure on the armed forces were not compatible with high rates of
economic growth. Rather, it was argued that the sustained allocation of a larger share of a
country’s resources to the security sector could produce “declining civilian consumption, lost
economic growth, runaway inflation, and the necessity of onerous controls.”¹ At the
beginning of 1950, a debate began within the United States government about the need to
rearm to counter an international situation which some members of the Truman
administration believed threatened the United States. Without access to adequate amounts
of capital and in the absence of sufficient investment, economic growth will be sluggish or
nonexistent. It has become increasingly clear, however, that there is a need to look beyond
the availability of financial resources when evaluating the success individual countries have
had in strengthening their economies. In discussing Western theories of development, Keith
Griffin has pointed to some of the problems associated with assigning investment a central
role in determining the rate of growth.
*Despite the amount of money made available to developing countries in the form of security-related
grants and loans since the end of World War II, security assistance has remained peripheral to
discussions of the role played by foreign capital inflows in the development process. On the one hand,
economic assistance provided specifically to enable recipient governments to support larger security
establishments than they could by using only their own resources tends not to be distinguished from
other forms of economic aid in the literature on economic assistance. At independence, many
countries in Asia and Africa experienced severe shortages of managerial, entrepreneurial,
and technical personnel. This was a legacy of the colonial period when education systems
tended to be oriented toward a small portion of the indigenous population. The purpose of
colonial education was to train a few individuals to fill subordinate positions in colonial
administration and commerce; it was not to provide a general education for a large
number of people. Development and industrialization have, to a large degree, been
considered synonymous in the Third World. Whether a country has attempted to follow a
capitalist or a socialist model of development, its objective has invariably been to increase
the share of industrial output to levels comparable to those in Western industrialized
countries—between 30 and 40 percent of gross product. The centrality assigned to
industrialization has derived from two observations. First, demand for manufactured goods
is considerably more responsive to changes in income than demand for food and other
agricultural products
Geographers often seek to categorize places using a scale of development, frequently dividing nations into the
"developed" and "developing," "first world" and "third world," or "core" and "periphery." All of these labels are
based on judging a country's development, but this raises the question: what exactly does it mean to be
"developed," and why have some countries developed while others have not? Since the beginning of the twentieth
century, geographers and those involved with the vast field of Development Studies have sought to answer this
question, and in the process, have come up with many different models to explain this phenomenon.
W.W. Rostow and the Stages of Economic Growth
One of the key thinkers in twentieth-century Development Studies was W.W. Rostow, an American 
economist, and government official. Prior to Rostow, approaches to development had been based on
the assumption that "modernization" was characterized by the Western world (wealthier, more
powerful countries at the time), which were able to advance from the initial stages of
underdevelopment. Accordingly, other countries should model themselves after the West, aspiring to
a "modern" state of capitalism and liberal democracy. Using these ideas, Rostow penned his classic "
Stages of Economic Growth" in 1960, which presented five steps through which all countries must
pass to become developed: 1) traditional society, 2) preconditions to take-off, 3) take-off, 4) drive to
maturity and 5) age of high mass consumption. The model asserted that all countries exist
somewhere on this linear spectrum, and climb upward through each stage in the development
process:
•Traditional Society: This stage is characterized by a subsistent, agricultural based economy, with intensive
labor and low levels of trading, and a population that does not have a scientific perspective on the world and
technology.
•Preconditions to Take-off: Here, a society begins to develop manufacturing, and a more
national/international, as opposed to regional, outlook.
•Take-off: Rostow describes this stage as a short period of intensive growth, in which industrialization begins to
occur, and workers and institutions become concentrated around a new industry.
•Drive to Maturity: This stage takes place over a long period of time, as standards of living rise, the use of
technology increases, and the national economy grows and diversifies.
Age of High Mass Consumption: At the time of writing, Rostow believed that Western countries, most notably
the United States, occupied this last "developed" stage. Here, a country's economy flourishes in a capitalist system,
characterized by mass production and consumerism. Rostow's Model in Context
Rostow's Stages of Growth model is one of the most influential development theories of the
twentieth century. It was, however, also grounded in the historical and political context in which he
wrote. "Stages of Economic Growth" was published in 1960, at the height of the Cold War, and with
the subtitle "A Non-Communist Manifesto," it was overtly political. Rostow was fiercely anti-
communist and right-wing; he modeled his theory after western capitalist countries, which had
industrialized and urbanized. As a staff member in President John F. Kennedy's administration,
Rostow promoted his development model as part of U.S. foreign policy. Rostow's model illustrates a
desire not only to assist lower-income countries in the development process but also to assert the
United States' influence over that of communist Russia.
Stages of Economic Growth in Practice: Singapore
Industrialization, urbanization, and trade in the vein of Rostow's model are still seen by many as a roadmap for a
country's development. Singapore is one of the best examples of a country that grew in this way and is now a
notable player in the global economy. Singapore is a southeast Asian country with a population of over five
million, and when it became independent in 1965, it did not seem to have any exceptional prospects for growth.
However, it industrialized early, developing profitable manufacturing and high-tech industries. Singapore is now
highly urbanized, with 100% of the population considered "urban." It is one of the most sought-after trade
partners in the international market, with a higher per-capita income than many European countries.
Criticisms of Rostow's Model
As the Singapore case shows, Rostow's model still sheds light on a successful path to economic
development for some countries. However, there are many criticisms of his model. While Rostow
illustrates faith in a capitalist system, scholars have criticized his bias towards a western model as
the only path towards development. Rostow lays out five succinct steps towards development and
critics have cited that all countries do not develop in such a linear fashion; some skip steps or take
different paths. Rostow's theory can be classified as "top-down," or one that emphasizes a trickle-
down modernization effect from urban industry and western influence to develop a country as a
whole. Later theorists have challenged this approach, emphasizing a "bottom-up" development
paradigm, in which countries become self- sufficient through local efforts, and urban industry is not
necessary. Rostow also assumes that all countries have a desire to develop in the same way, with
the end goal of high mass consumption, disregarding the diversity of priorities that each society
holds and different measures of development. 
For example, while Singapore is one of the most economically prosperous countries, it also has one
of the highest income disparities in the world. Finally, Rostow disregards one of the most
fundamental geographical principals: site and situation. Rostow assumes that all countries have an
equal chance to develop, without regard to population size, natural resources, or location.
Singapore, for instance, has one of the world's busiest trading ports, but this would not be possible
without its advantageous geography as an island nation between Indonesia and Malaysia.
In spite of the many critiques of Rostow's model, it is still one of the most widely cited development
theories and is a primary example of the intersection of geography, economics, and politics.
There are three main factors that drive economic growth:
Accumulation of capital stock
Increases in labor inputs, such as workers or hours worked
Technological advancement
Growth accounting measures the contribution of each of these three factors to the
economy. Thus, a country’s growth can be broken down by accounting for what
percentage of economic growth comes from capital, labor and technology.
It has been shown, both theoretically and empirically, that technological progress is the
main driver of long-run growth. The explanation is actually quite straightforward. Holding
other input factors constant, the additional output obtained when adding one extra unit
input of capital or labor will eventually decline, according to the law of diminishing returns.
As a result, a country cannot maintain its long-run growth by simply accumulating more
capital or labor. Therefore, the driver of long-run growth has to be technological progress.
This post further investigates the relationship between sources of past economic growth
and future performances, especially the periods after the Great Recession, among
developed countries. We collected data from the Conference Board’s Total Economy
Database for nine major advanced economies1 from 1990 to 2013 and performed the
following growth accounting exercise:For each country, per capita output growth is first
broken down into the respective contributions from capital stock, labor inputs and
technological advancements (represented by total factor productivity, or TFP).2 Next, we
divide our sample into two periods: before and after the financial crisis. This allows us to
check if drivers of growth relate to the economic performance of a country, especially
during or after the recession. Finally, we plot average gross domestic product (GDP) growth
after the financial crisis against the average contribution to output growth of labor, capital
and TFP before 2007, as shown in the figures below.
.
The result shows a positive correlation between past TFP and future growth among
developed economies. The correlation coefficient was close to 0.60. Namely, those
countries whose growth was driven by TFP before the crisis tended to have higher output
growth afterward. However, the relationships between GDP growth after the crisis and
the contribution to GDP from capital or labor were both negative. The correlation
between output growth and labor was -0.68 and between output growth and capital was
-0.30.  The negative correlations suggest that countries with growth driven by capital or
labor accumulation are less likely to do well in the future, especially during economic
downturns. Our simple exercise also implies that the health of an economy depends on
the source of growth instead of the growth itself.   
In addition to the role TFP plays in driving long-run growth, this simple exercise shows
that a country with robust TFP-driven growth prior to the Great Recession tended to do
well relative to other countries following the recession.
Notes and References
1
 The countries are Germany, Italy, France, the United States, Japan, Australia, Canada,
Great Britain and Spain.
2
 The labor inputs are measured by the total labor hours adjusted by quality of labor
(human capital).
Main Benefits of Economic Growth
1.Higher living standards – i.e. Real GNI per capita – helps to lift people out of extreme
poverty and improve development outcomes (e.g. rising HDI)
2.Employment effects – sustained growth stimulates jobs and contributes to lower
unemployment rates which is turn helps to reduce income inequality.
3.Fiscal dividend – higher economic growth will raise tax revenues and reduce government
spending on unemployment & poverty related welfare benefits
Accelerator effect - rising growth stimulates new investment e.g. in low-carbon
technologies. Better growth may attract foreign direct investment projects. Main Costs of
Economic Growth
Rapid rates of GDP growth can bring about undesirable economic and social costs – much depends
on the nature/causes of growth.
Risks of higher inflation and higher interest rates
Fast-growing demand can lead to demand-pull and cost-push inflation – this leads to a conflict
between macro objectives
The central bank may decide to raise interest rates to control inflation
Environmental effects
More negative externalities such as pollution & waste
Risk of unsustainable extraction of finite resources – i.e. fast growing countries may cause a long-run
depletion of natural resources
Inequalities of income and wealth
Rapid increases in real national income can lead to a higher level of inequality and social divisions
Many of the gains from growth may go to only a few people
Social Security is a critical federal program that promotes income stability
among households in the United States.   It does so by providing a steady
stream of income to replace lost wages due to retirement, disability, or
death.  The role that Social Security benefits play in the economic security
of the 57 million people who received it in 2012 is well known, but its
importance to the broader economy has received little attention.   
As this research report shows, Social Security benefits play a key role in the
economy, supporting over 9 million jobs across the country and more than a
trillion dollars of economic output.  Social Security has a much greater
impact on the economy than just the amount of its benefit payments
because when Social Security beneficiaries spend their monthly benefit
checks, the effects ripple through the economy.  These benefits in turn help
every State where benefits are spent.
This research report quantifies the impact Social Security benefits have on
the U.S. economy and the economies of every state.
2.ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
PLANNING AND
MONITORING
By developing customized environmental management systems, Renardet designs Environmental Management Plans and
Monitoring Plans capable of covering the most diversified economic activities established in the Oman.
The rapid urge of a “green conscience” the Sultanate of Oman, triggered the urgent need for developing sustainable
organizations oriented to the conservation of natural resources.
Covering the needs of the emerging market, Renardet outputs a solid and sustainable commitment with the environment, by
developing plans to ensure that all necessary measures are properly addressed in full compliance with the local legal
requirements and regulations.
Solid consultant for the development of Environmental Management Plans, Renardet features services that comprise:
•Environmental Risk Assessment
•Compliance with Legal Requirements & Standards
•Environmental Management Structure and Responsibilities
•Development of Procedures and Practices
•Environmental Monitoring Plans
•Environmental Audits
•Capacity Building
•Remediation Plans
Implementation and control of the designed management and monitoring plans are some of the key steps to achieve a
successful “continuous improvement”. Our expertise overcomes simple management and monitoring design, Renardet
maintains an exceptional record providing environmental monitoring control for:
•Air Emissions
•Water Quality
•Noise
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMMP)
Proactive and adaptive measures to protect the environment
Rapid coastal development, combined with population growth and global industrialisation, is placing coastal and
marine environments under increasing pressure. New ports and harbours, coastal defence and climate change
adaptation measures, as well as land reclamation and dredging works are imperative in order to support our existing
and future prosperity. Most of these projects typically go through Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) to
identify and mitigate potential environmental impacts. However, an EIA is usually based upon a range of assumptions
about the timing and methodology of the construction works. These details are only available once the construction
contract is awarded. They also keep changing throughout the course of the development in response to changing site
conditions.
An ongoing Environmental Monitoring and Management Plan (EMMP) is a tool to proactively manage and confirm
that impacts of dredging, reclamation and other marine construction activities do not exceed the stipulated
Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs) for the project.
Types of Sensors for Environmental Monitoring
Introduction
Environmental monitoring is needed to be able protect the public and the environment
from toxic contaminants and pathogens. It is used to prepare environmental impact
assessments, as well establish the circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of
harmful effects on the natural environment.
Types of monitoring carried out includes that of air, water and soil. All monitoring strategies
and programmes have reasons and justifications which help them to establish the current
status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters.
Types of Contamination
Toxic contaminants and pathogens that can be released into a variety of media including air, soil, and water.
Air pollutants originate from sources such as vehicle emissions, refineries, power plants and industrial and
laboratory processes. Pollutants include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and volatile organic
compounds.
Soil and water contaminants can be split into microbiological, radioactive, inorganic, synthetic organic and
volatile organic compounds. Pesticides and herbicides are applied directly to plants and soils, and spills, leaking
pipes, underground storage tanks, waste dumps, and waste repositories can cause incidental releases of other
contaminants.
Heavy metals and organic contaminants are increasing in parts of the environment as a result of anthropogenic
activity. Metal contaminants concentrate in aquatic matrices such as suspended matter, sediment and biota,
which results in an increased presence in the aquatic food chain.
Some contaminants persist for years and can migrate through large regions of soil, until they eventually reach
water resources and present ecological and human-health threats.
Types of Monitoring
The three main types of environmental monitoring are air, soil and water.
Air pollution is a constantly growing problem worldwide. Air monitoring is done via air sampling. The
sampling can be passive, diffusive or done by biomonitoring with organisms that bioaccumulate air
pollutants. As air pollution concentration is heavily influenced by the wind, anemometer data is also
taken into account, as well as topography as landscape features can hinder the process of lateral
atmospheric mixing.

Soil monitoring is done through soil sampling, which includes looking at soil erosion, salinity and
contamination. Farming key to the world’s food production while the regeneration of forests and jungles
is central to keeping the air clean and free of CO2, so a large number of environmental monitoring
Water monitoring has a wide range of sampling methods depending on the environment and the type of
material being analysed. The types of water sampling include judgmental, simple random, stratified, grid,
systematic, adaptive cluster, biomonitoring, remote sensors, passive, semi and continuous and grab sampling.
The chemical condition of water is of high importance, so the presence of oxygen, nutrients, oils, pesticides and
metals are all monitored.
Types of Sensors
There are numerous types of environmental sensors depending on the specifications needed for
monitoring. Sensitivity, size and speed are all factors to consider when choosing an environmental
sensor. Sensors can be divided into categories depending on the type of sensor being used, and the
environmental factors that an analyst is looking at.
The main types of sensors include:
Trace metal sensors - Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), nanoelectrode array and miniature
chemical flow-probe sensor
Radioisotopic sensors - RadFET (Radiation field-effect transistor), cadmium zinc telluride (CZT)
detectors, low-energy pin diodes beta spectrometer, thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), isotope
identification gamma detector, neutron generator for nuclear material detection, non-sandia radiation
detectors
Volatile organic compound sensors - Evanescent fiber-optic chemical sensor, grating light reflection
spectroscopy (GLRS), miniature chemical flow probe sensor, chemical sensor arrays, MicroChemLab
(gas phase), gold nanoparticle chemiresistors, electrical impedance of tethered lipid bilayers on planar
electrodes, MicroHound, hyperspectral imaging, chemiresistor array
Biological sensors - Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) analyser, insulator-based dielectrophoresis,
biological sensor arrays, μProLab, MicroChemLab (Liquid)
Sensors can also be split into types depending on environmental factors. These
types of sensors include:
•Moisture sensors – Moisture sensors are essential for the measurement of
volumetric water content in the soil towards the chimerical environment by several
orders of magnitude
•Pressure sensors/transducers – Pressure sensors operate on the basis of pressure
applied. They are used in fields such as aviation, manufacturing biomedical
measurements, auto mobile and hydraulic measurements.
•Tilt sensors – The tilt sensor relates the two different axes indicating a reference
plane which may be in two different axis. This plays an important role in measuring
tilt angles with reference to the Earth’s ground plane. Tilt sensors are common in
industry and in game controllers.
•Rain sensors – Rain sensors are a type of switching device which gets activated in
the presence of rainfall. Rain sensors are used in areas such as as water
conservation devices in irrigation systems, and in automobiles with windscreen
wipers
•Vibration sensors – Vibration sensors are important for displacement and
acceleration with respect to the enduring impact on the environment.
Displacement, linear velocity and acceleration are different factors which vibration
+5 sa gapamati kag ga hipos
1.What is economic growth?
2.It was widely believed that igh levels of expenditureon the armed forces were not
compatible with high rates of economic gowth.what war is it?
3.What country’s experienced severe shortages of managerial, entrepreneurial and
technical personel?
4.What is the name of peoples who often see to categorize places using a scale of
development?
5.Who is one of the key thinkers in twenthieth-century development studies?
6.What is the work of w.w. rostow?
7-11.what is the 5 stages of the development process?
12-14.what are the model of rostow that still can be seen as a road map for a country’s
development?
15. Who designed ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLANS AND MONITORING PLANS capable
covering the most diversified economic activities established in the oman?
16-17.what are the two main types of sensors?
18-20.what are the sensors that split into types depending on environmental factors?
GROUP MEMBERS:
GROUP MEMBERS:
HERMHIONE ELLAIN
HERMHIONE
DECOLONGON
ELLAIN DECOLONGON
MARY ELOISA B. PENETRANTE
MARY ELOISA B. PENETRANTE
MARY GRACE GALILEA MARY GRACE GALILEA
MARY GALILEE MONTANIO
MARY GALILEE MONTANIO
ALYSSA BEGONA JAY IAN LAURON
JAY IAN LAURON ALYSSA DENISE V. BEGONA
PRINCE BEN MARL BILLETE
 THE END
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