CARBOHYDRAT

METABOLIS
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• Digestion: Breakdown of food molecules by
hydrolysis into simpler chemical units that
can be used by cells in their metabolic
processes
• Carbohydrate digestion: Begins in the
mouth
– Salivary enzyme “Alpha-amylase” catalyzes the
hydrolysis of alpha-glycosidic linkages of starch and
glycogen to produce smaller polysaccharides and
disaccharide - maltose
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• Only a small amount of carbohydrate
digestion occurs in the mouth because food is
swallowed so quickly into the stomach.
• In stomach very little carbohydrate is
digested:
– No carbohydrate digestion enzymes present in
stomach
– Salivary amylase gets inactivated because of
stomach acidity
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• The primary site for the carbohydrate
digestion is within the small intestine
– Pancreatic alpha-amylase breaks down
polysaccharide chains into disaccharide –
maltose
• The final step in carbohydrate digestion
occurs on the outer membranes of
intestinal mucosal cells
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• Disaccharidase enzymes present in the
intestinal mucosa convert disaccharides
(maltose, sucrose and lactose) to
monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and
galactose)
Maltase – converts maltose to glucose
Sucrase – Converts sucrose to glucose and
fructose
Lactase – Converts lactose glucose and galactose
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• The carbohydrate digestion products
(glucose, galactose, and fructose) are
absorbed into the bloodstream
through the intestinal wall.
• The intestinal villi are rich in blood
capillaries into which the
monosaccharides are actively
transported.
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• ATP hydrolysis and protein carriers
mediate the passage of the
monosaccharides through cell
membranes.
• Galactose and Fructose are converted
to products of glucose metabolism in
the liver.
 Major Pathways of CHO Metabolism
CHO metabolism in mammalian cells can be
classified into:
1. Glycolysis: Oxidation of glucose to pyruvate
(aerobic state) or lactate (anaerobic state)
2. Krebs cycle: After oxidation of pyruvate to
acetyl CoA, acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle
for the aim of production of ATP.
3. Hexose monophosphate shunt: Enables cells
to produce ribose-5-phosphate and NADPH.
4. Glycogenesis: Synthesis of glycogen from
 Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof Pathway)
[glycolysis: from the Greek glyk-, sweet, and lysis, splitting]

• Glycolysis occurs in all human cells. Glycolysis is

believed to be among the oldest of all the biochemical
pathways.
Aerobic: Glucose  Pyruvate
Anaerobic: Glucose  Lactate (or ethanol & acetic
acid)
• Glycolysis: The metabolic pathway in which glucose is
converted to two molecules of pyruvate (a C3 carboxylate),
and ATP and NADH are produced.
– During this process several carbon atoms are oxidized. The small amount of
energy captured during glycolytic reactions (about 5% of the total available) is
stored temporarily in two molecules each of ATP and NADH (the reduced form
of the coenzyme NAD+).
• Step 1: Formation of glucose-6-phosphate:
– Phosphorylation of glucose - phosphate group from
ATP is transferred to the hydroxyl group on carbon 6 of
glucose
– Reactions catalyzed by Hexokinase
– Endothermic reaction
– Energy needed is derived from ATP hydrolysis
• Step 2: Formation of Fructose-6-phosphate:
– Glucose 6 phosphate is isomerized to Fructose -6-
Phosphate.
– Enzyme: Phosphoglucoisomerase
Step 3: Formation of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate:
– Further phosphorylation of Fructose-6-bisphosphate
– Endothermic reaction
– Energy derived from ATP hydrolysis
– Enzyme: phosphofructokinase
Step 4: Formation of Triose Phosphates:
– C6 species is split into two C3 species
– Two C3 species formed are dihydroxyacetone
phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
– Enzyme : Aldolase
Step 5: Isomerization of Triose Phosphates:
– Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is isomerized to
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
– Enzyme: Triosephosphate isomerase
Step 7: Formation of 3-Phosphoglycerate:
– Diphosphate from step 6 is converted back to monophosphate
species
– It is an ATP producing step
• C1 high energy phosphate group of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
is transferred to an ADP molecule to form an ATP
– Enzyme: phosphoglycerokinase
– Two ATP molecules are produced for each original glucose
molecule
Step 8: Formation of 2-phosphoglycerate:
– Isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-
phosphoglycerate
• Phosphate group moved from C-3 to C-2
– Enzyme: Phosphoglyceromutase
Step 9: Formation of Phosphoenolpyruvate:
– This is an alcohol dehydration reaction -- results in
another high energy phosphate group containing
compound
– Enzyme: Enolase
Step 10: Formation of Pyruvate:
– High energy phosphate is transferred from
phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP molecule to produce
ATP and pyruvate
– Enzyme: Pyruvate kinase
– Two ATP molecules are produced for each original
glucose molecule
– Note: Steps 1,3 and 10 are control points for
glycolysis
 Differences between Glucokinase & Hexokinase
Hexokinase Glucokinase

 Present in all tissues  Liver only

 Low Km for glucose (<0.1  Higher Km for glucose
mM)
 Strongly inhibited by G6P  Not inhibited by G6P

 Non-inducible enzyme, not  Inducible, synthesis induced by

affected by diabetes or insulin & repressed in diabetes
insulin

 Level of enzyme is not  Depends on glucose concentration

affected by fasting or high
CHO diet

 Act on glucose, fructose and  Glucose only

galactose
• There is a net gain of two ATP molecules in
glycolysis for every glucose molecule
processed

Overall equation for glycolysis

 Assignment:

• What is meant by “substrate level

phosphorylation” ?

• What effects do fluoride and magnesium

have on glycolysis ?
• Why glycolysis under anaerobic
conditions proceed to lactate and
not just stop at pyruvate formation
?