Cognitive Aging and Yoga

Alexander Waugh
Introduction
● The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that adults
complete a “moderate to vigorous” amount of aerobic activity daily to maintain a
general healthy lifestyle.
● The activity level of yoga does not meet the lower “moderate” guidelines

● Despite this, recent research shows that yogic practice provides similar benefits

● This presentation is centered around the effects of yoga on the brain; particularly
the effects on memory and neural structure compared to similar practices. We
will draw connections also with studies showing yoga slows “cellular aging”. In
the end we will examine how this is related to the Mind-Body problem.
 Relevant Questions

Question #1
Are the benefits of yoga inherent to this
specific set of practices? That is, can one
achieve similar benefits by practicing
mindfulness/meditation alone? What about
similar practices like Tai-Chi?
Question #2
Is there a difference in the “brain structure” of
yoga practitioners vs. non-practitioners? If so,
how do these differences aid or harm the yogi?
 Relevant Questions

Question #3 Question #4
What underlying “conditions” is yoga How long does it take to reap the benefits of
addressing when providing these benefits? yoga, if there are any?
Main Studies
Study #1: Fluid Intelligence and Brain Functional Organization
in aging yoga and meditation Practitioners

● Consisted of 47 participants
○ 16 yogi’s, 16 meditators, and 15 controls
● Fluid Intelligence (FI) was shown to decline with age
○ Modelled by equation log(F) = A/age + log(Ff) where A is the rate at which FI declines and Ff is the
plateau that fluid intelligence reaches at advanced ages
● “Resilience” to attacks on the brain were also studied (theoretically) by using
neural imaging scans and removing nodes in the resulting model
○ Removing these nodes represent physical damage to the brain's neural structure
● Modelled the relationship between Resilience and age-related cognitive decline
(e.g. Alzheimer's)

Front. Aging Neurosci. 22 April 2014

● The first graph shows the model for fluid
intelligence decline in the various groups
in the study.
● The second graph is the mean functional
network resilience, measured in global
efficiency of the network, after the
removal of 15 “central” nodes
● The third graph shows a model of such
networks
 ● The value of A in the model of FI was
significantly lower for yogis
○ The model suggests that FI will not decline
past a certain point that is higher for yogis

Summary of and meditators

● Cognitive Resilience to age-related
Conclusions brain damage was found to be higher
in yoga practitioners and meditators
Study #1 ○ Biological Resistance to damage was not
established
● Mindfulness and higher “network
integration”, Resilience, and FI were
shown to have a significant positive
correlation
 Study #2: Impact of Yoga and Meditation on Cellular Aging in
Apparently Healthy Individuals

● Consisted of 96 “apparently healthy” individuals enrolled in a 12-week yoga lifestyle

intervention
○ This includes Asanas (physical postures), Pranayama (breathing exercises, and Dhyana (Meditation)
derived from a mix of Hatha and Raja yoga.
● Measures primary biomarkers of cellular aging (CA) such as DNA damage, telomere
length attrition (TLA), and oxidative stress (OS)
○ These attributes are commonly associated with genomic instability (GI), general aging and lifestyle
diseases like depression
○ Accelerated aging can lead to impaired neuroplasticity
● Biomarkers were measured at the beginning and end of the study
● After 12 weeks, there was a significant improvement in primary biomarkers (see
table on next slide)
Oxid Med Cell Longev 16 Jan 2017
Data Summary

● Oxidative stress, DNA damage

and telomere attrition were all
significantly decreased at the
end of 12 weeks
● The mean telomere length was
increased but not significant
● The mean levels of cortisol (i.e.
stress hormone) was
significantly lower
 ● The effect of a 12 week yoga program
had significant effects on cellular
aging
Summary of ○ Findings are supported by the impact on
OS, GI, and increases in neuroplasticity
Conclusions ● Modern lifestyle diseases can be
combated against with yoga
Study #2 ○ “Improved Cellular Longevity after yoga
intervention suggests the potential role of
yoga in promoting fitness”
● Impact was correlated with the
reduction of stress from daily life
Study #3: Differences in Brain Structure and Function Among
Yoga Practitioners and Controls

● Consisted of 26 participants
○ 13 yogis with at least 3 years of yoga practice and 13 controls
● Focused on examining structural and functional differences in the brains of
yogis and controls through
○ Use of MRI scans to acquire whole-brain structural images
○ Examined results of working memory tasks by recording accuracy in a sequence of yes/no
responses and response time
● Also studied correlation between grey matter volume and yogic practices
● “...our results should be interpreted as tentative”
○ Small sample size
○ No meditation group to compare with yoga group

Front. Integ Neurosci 26 Dec 2018

 ● Yogis had significantly higher left
hippocampal volume
○ Confirmed prior findings that yoga-based
intervention leads to significant increase in

Summary of bilateral hippocampus grey matter volume (the

portion of the brain concerned with learning

Conclusions and memory)

● Confirms prior studies showing aerobic
exercise and mindfulness lead to similar
Study #3 neurobiological effects as yoga
● Working memory tests showed no
significant difference in accuracy or
average response time between yogis
and controls
Study #4: The Effects of an 8-week Hatha Yoga Intervention on
Executive Function in Older Adults

● Consisted of 118 participants in an 8-week intervention

○ Participants split into “Hatha Yoga Group” (HYG) and “Stretching and Strengthening Control
Group” (SSCG)
● HYG performed (modern) yoga poses, breathing exercises and meditative
practices (including mantra repetitions)
● SSCG performed basic exercises to meet CDC anaerobic recommendations
○ Bicep curls, tricep extensions, seated flutter kicks, etc…
● Cognitive assessments: Task switching, Working Memory, and n-back tasks
○ Completed at the beginning of the study and at then end of the 8th week

The Journals of Gerontology Sep 2014

Cognitive Data

● Baseline differences were insignificant

● After 8-weeks:
○ Yoga participants were more
efficient in task switching
○ There was a significant increase in
partial recall in the yoga group
● Overall, results varied in significance
within each task group with a general
trend for the HYG outperforming the
SSCG
 ● The 8-week Hatha yoga intervention
successfully improved working memory
and mental flexibility in older adults
○ Possible skewed results because

Summary of sample was dominated by

Caucasian females

Conclusions ● Unsure whether yogic practice directly

causes these improvements or if they
Study #4 are a secondary effect of reducing stress
and improving psychological states of
participants
○ “It is well know that stress and
anxiety affect cognitive
performance…”
Meta-Analysis Studies
 Meta #1: The Effectiveness of Tai Chi for short-term cognitive
function improvement in the early stages of dementia in the elderly: a
systematic literature review

● Analysis of 9 studies on the global cognitive impact of Tai-Chi

○ Average age of participants was 78 with sample sizes ranging from 11 to 238 participants
○ Some also included control groups doing “adapted” forms of exercise new to their routine
● Studies consisted of Tai-Chi interventions ranging from 8 weeks to 1 year
○ Practice varied from 1 to 4 times a week and style
● All studies used the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)
○ Commonly used to screen for dementia and similar conditions
● On average, participants maintained or increased their scores on one or more
cognitive functions at the end of their trials
○ Four of the studies recorded no significant change in scores

Clin Interv Aging 8 May 2019

 ● Overall, the 9 studies suggest that Tai
Chi positively impacts global cognitive
Summary of functions
○ Visuospatial skills, semantic
Conclusions memory, verbal learning/memory
and self-perception of memory
Meta #1
● The results are comparable to control
groups which participated in mild forms
of exercise
 Meta #2: Yoga Effects on Brain Health: A systematic Review of
the Current Literature

● Analysis of 11 studies screened for “holistic yoga”

○ 9 studies used Hatha yoga, 2 studies used Kundalini yoga, and 1 study used Iyengar yoga
● 3 studies show no difference between yogis and controls in working memory
maintenance or retrieval
○ But yogis had significantly less brain activation during encoding than controls (see here for memory definitions)
● Majority of the studies show changes in grey matter volume following yoga practice
○ Grey matter in the frontal, limbic, temporal, occipital, and cerebellar regions is usually higher in yogis
● Collective evidence suggests that holistic yogic practices provide similar cortical
neuro-protective effects as a regimen of cardiovascular and mindfulness exercise

Brain Plasticity, vol 5. 26 Dec 2019

The Questions
 Question #1: Are the benefits of yoga inherent to this
specific set of practices?

● Sometimes yes and sometimes no?

○ Study #1 suggest that yoga is significantly more effective than similar practices
○ Meta #2 reports there is consistent evidence of higher grey matter volume in the literature but the effectiveness of yoga varies
with the study
● A consistent caveat noted in the studies is “mindfulness”
○ Meta #2 can be seen as saying that Studies #1 and #4 are measuring effects of mindful practices which accompany yoga
○ This coincides with the caveat Study #4 gives about mindfulness
● That is, yoga is not the inherent cause of these benefits. Rather the benefits described are byproducts of lower
cortisol levels associated to practicing mindfulness
● This is partially confirmed by Meta 1 (Tai Chi)
○ Similar effects are attributed to Tai Chi which uses similar forms of mindfulness through breathing exercises, (fluid) poses, and
meditation
○ Possible counterargument is the effects of Tai Chi being compared to the vague “other forms of mild exercise”
■ This could discredit Tai Chi as being comparable to the meditation/controls of studies 1 and 4
Question #2: Is there a difference in the “brain structure”
of yoga practitioners vs. non-practitioners?

● Study #3 and Meta #2 show correlation between yoga practice and higher grey matter
volume
○ Particularly in centers of the brain related to learning and memory
● Meta #1 complicates this because Tai Chi practitioners also have increased capacity for
learning and memory
○ Not a whole lot of detail about increased grey matter in Tai Chi practitioner
○ Yoga could be more effective in increasing grey matter volume but new research is necessary
● Study #1 shows that the network connectivity is higher in yoga practitioners
○ This correlates with less activation in the brain in yogis when compared to controls
○ Also related with models showing that yogis brains are able to cope with physical damage
Question #3: What underlying “conditions” is yoga
addressing when providing these benefits?

● Study #1 and a few studies examined in Meta #2 suggest that yoga provides more benefits
than meditation and similar mindfulness practices
● The conclusion of Meta #2, however, is that these effects are because of some underlying
connection with mindfulness
● Primarily, yoga and similar practices are thought to be addressing underlying stress and
psychological strain which can lead to faster aging and mental decline
○ Study #2 shows the direct effects of yoga reducing oxidative stress in one's life but does not provide
comparisons to a control on whether this is intrinsic to yoga
● Study #2 also promotes the idea that yoga can be used as a general lifestyle change in
combating, as of yet, not completely understood lifestyle diseases
○ E.g. Depression, “chronic inflammation”, etc...
○ Meta #2 also suggests that yoga may be able to help Schizophrenics and people with similar mental
disorders
Question #4: How long does it take to reap the benefits of
yoga, if there are any?

● Yoga interventions programs varied in length from 8 to 24 weeks

○ Studies #2 and #4 were 8-week interventions and showed that there were significant effects on
aging biomarkers and cognition (especially memory)
○ Similar significant results were shown in other intervention studies in Meta #2
● Yoga case studies comparing neural structures between yogis and controls are more
complicated
○ Yogis on average self reported practicing yoga most days of the week for at least 3 years
○ Grey matter volume increase was recorded in almost all yogis but how long it takes to attain such
benefits has not been studied
● Yoga participants in study #4 also reported after the intervention of having a increased
feeling of wellness at the end of week 8
 ● Yoga shows potential for further study of “wellbeing

Conclusions guidelines”
○ Further research is necessary to validate that yoga is the actual
cause of the effects in the studies
○ This is still a very new domain of research (see graph to left)
● Consistent practice of yoga today has measurable
effects on wellbeing (aging, cognitive decline,
memory and learning)
○ Despite not understanding the exact causes of these benefits,
people can benefit greatly from practicing yoga now
● Practices of mindfulness (e.g Tai Chi) may lead to
similar neurocognitive properties as yoga
○ Further studies are necessary to confirm or deny this but it
would not be surprising if the effects of yoga were derived
from some underlying mental states shared among similar
practices to yoga
● The effects of yoga build with time and some are
measurable after only 2 months

Graph: Brain Plasticity, vol 5. 26 Dec 2019

Connection with the Mind-Body Problem

These studies quantify the ability for bodily practices to affect the mind. The fact that meditation alone
does not provide the breadth of benefits as a well rounded yoga program (see study #1) suggests that
the body has some influence over the mind. Study #3 and meta #2 extend this as they show yogic
practice can lead to brain growth and higher neural connectivity (related to the mental aspects of
creativity, learning, memory and resilience). Furthermore, study #2 shows that mental disorders like
depression can be addressed by yogic practice. All of this corroborates a materialistic framing of the
mind-body problem. Namely, practices done by the body (with some mental aspects) have measurable
effects on the mind. Hence the mind is part of the body in some aspect. The caveat here is the fact that
there are some mental practices associated with yoga, such as meditation. If it is shown later that the
benefits of yoga are derived primarily from mental states (and not physical practice) this would lead to
uncertainty in whether the mind is actually part of the body; violating the materialistic view. However, at
this time, current research suggests yoga is a conduit from the body to the mind and through its
practice we can better understand and control our thoughts by disciplining and taking care of our body.
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