3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1.

Deflection, difference, and null methods 1

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS
3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods
With the deflection method, the result of the measurement is
entirely determined by the readout of the measurement device.

10

The linearity of the entire scale is important.

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 2

The difference method indicates only the difference between

the unknown quantity and the known, reference quantity.
Here, the result of the measurement is partially determined by
the readout of the measurement device and partially by the
reference quantity.

10 10

Reference

0 0

The linearity of a part of the scale is important.

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 3

With the null method, the result is entirely determined by a

known reference quantity. The readout of the measurement
instrument is used only to adjust the reference quantity to
exactly the same value as the known quantity. The indication is
then zero and the instrument is used as a null detector.

10 10

Reference

0 0

The linearity of the scale is not important.

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 4

Example A: (a) deflection, (b) difference, and (c) null measurements

mm ±103 100

mm 100

)a(

Inaccuracy:
:Inaccuracy ±100 m
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 5

Example A: (a) deflection, (b) difference, and (c) null measurements

mm ±103 1
0 0
mm ±103 100

mm 100

)a( )b(
Reference

mm ±105 99

Inaccuracy:
:Inaccuracy ±100 m m ±1 ±1
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 6

Example A: (a) deflection, (b) difference, and (c) null measurements

mm ±103 1 mm ±103 0
0 0 0 0
mm ±103 100

mm 100

)a( )b( )c(

Reference Reference

mm ±105 99 mm ±105 100

Inaccuracy:
:Inaccuracy ±100 m ±1 ±1 m m ±1 ±0

Null method: linearity is not important;

sensitivity and zero drift are important.
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 7

Example B: Null measurements, C=0, P0=FA

Pressure, P0 F = m·g

Oil

Membrane

C1 C2

Null method: linearity is not important;

sensitivity and zero drift are important.
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 8

Example C: Difference measurements, P = P0 P, P  C

Pressure, P0 + P F = m·g

Oil

Membrane

C1 C2
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 9

Example C: Difference measurements, P = P0 P, P  C

Pressure, P0 F = m·g

Oil

Membrane

C1 C2
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 10

Example C: Difference measurements, P = P0 P, P  C

Pressure, P0 P
F = m·g

Oil

Membrane

C1 C2

.Difference method: linearity is important

3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method 11

Bridge method (Christie, 1833, Wheatstone, 1843)

Null detector
Rx R
R )1( Vref Vref

Vref
R
VxVref R R

’Originally was called ‘the bridge

It can be shown that the null condition does not depend on the
power delivered by the power supply, the circuits internal
impedance, or the internal impedance of the null detector.

Note that the bridge method requires a single power source.

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 12

Example D: Null measurements

Let us first define some new terms that describe the interface of
a measurement system:

transducer is any device that converts a physical signal

of one type into a physical signal of another type,

measurement transducer is the transducer that does not

destroy the information to be measured,

input transducer or sensor is the transducer that

converts non-electrical signals into electrical signals,

output transducer or actuator is the transducer that

converts electrical signals into non-electrical signals.

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 13

Example D: Null measurements

Input transducer (sensor)

Non-electrical signal Sensor

Sensor Electrical signal

ES

N-ES
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 14

Example D: Null measurements

Output transducer (actuator)

Electrical signal Actuator

Actuator Non-electrical signal

N-ES

ES
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 15

Example D: Null measurements

Non-electrical signals Measurement system interface

Non-electrical signals
Sensor
Sensor Actuator
Actuator

Measurement
Measurement System
System

Sensor
Sensor Actuator
Actuator
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 16

Example D: Null measurements

Our aim in this example is to eliminate temperature drift in the

sensitivity of a dc magnetic field sensor with the help of a linear
temperature-insensitive reciprocal actuator.

Ha VS Vo Hact
Sensor
Sensor Actuator
Actuator

VS Hact
T1
T1 T2
T2

Ha Vo
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 17

Example D: Null measurements

Any ideas? Reference (Helmholtz coils)

Io

Hact
Null detector
VS
Sensor
Sensor Vo
Io VS0 A
Ha

Vs HactHa
The sensor temperature-drift T1
errors and nonlinearity are T1 T2
not important
Hact 1Hact 2
T2

HHaHact Vo 1Vo 2 Vo
H1H2 0
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 18

Example E: Difference measurements

Reference (Helmholtz coils)

Io

Hact

G AOL VS
HactHa 
Sensor
Sensor Vo
AOL +1 Io VS 0 A
Ha

VS Hact
The sensor temperature-drift T1
errors and nonlinearity are T1 Hact T2
important VS Hact
T2
VS

HHaHact Vo 2 Vo 1 Vo
H1H2
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 19

3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the interchange method, two almost equal
quantities are exchanged in the second measurement.

This method can determine both the magnitude of the

difference between the two quantities and and the magnitude
of possible asymmetry in the measuring system.

2- 1 - 0 1 2
3- 3

m1 m2

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 20

3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the interchange method, two almost equal
quantities are exchanged in the second measurement.

This method can determine both the magnitude of the

difference between the two quantities and and the magnitude
of possible asymmetry in the measuring system.

2- 1 - 0 1 2
3- 3

m2 m1

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 21

3.2. Interchange method and substitution method

According to the interchange method, two almost equal
quantities are exchanged in the second measurement.

This method can determine both the magnitude of the

difference between the two quantities and and the magnitude
of possible asymmetry in the measuring system.

Offset =[1 (2)]/2

2- 1 - 0 1 2
3- 3

m =[1(2)]/2
m1 m2

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 22

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.

The characteristics of the measurement system should

therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.

2 1 0.5 0.2

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 23

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.

The characteristics of the measurement system should

therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.

m
2 1 0.5 0.2

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 24

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.

The characteristics of the measurement system should

therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.

2
m
1 0.5 0.2

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 25

According to the substitution method, the unknown quantity is

measured first, and the measurement system reading is
remembered. Then, the unknown quantity is replaced with a
known and adjustable quantity, which is adjusted to obtain the
remembered reading.

The characteristics of the measurement system should

therefore not influence the measurement. Only the time stability
and the resolution of the system are important.

Calibration
3.5

m=3.5
2
2 0.5
0.5
1
1

m
1 0.5 0.2

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 26

Calibration of a measurement system is, in fact, an application

of the substitution method. First the system is calibrated with a
know quantity. An unknown quantity can then be measured
accurately if its magnitude coincides with the calibrating points.

Calibration
3.5

m=3.5
2
2 0.5
0.5
1
1

m
1 0.5 0.2

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 27

Example A: Interchange method.

Vo
)Vo AVoff AVaVb
)Vo' AVoff AVaVb
Voff A
AVoff
Vo
VaVb V
Va Vb

)Vo' AVoff AVaVb

? = Voff

? = VaVb
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 28

Example A: Interchange method.

Vo
)Vo AVoff AVaVb
)Vo' AVoff AVaVb
Voff A
AVoff
Vo
VaVb V
)Vo"AVoff AVaVb
Va Vb

)Vo' AVoff AVaVb

? =offVAV
)Vo"AV off aVb

"Vo'?V aV
?==VoV off b

2 A·V off
? = VaVb

"Vo' Vo

2 A(VaVb)
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 29

Example: Amplifiers with the controllable polarity of the gain.

10k ±1%

10k ±1%

Voff A

vin 5k
5k

10k ±1%

10k ±1%

Voff A
vin
5k
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 30

Example: Amplifiers with the controllable polarity of the gain.

10k ±1%

10k ±1%

Voff A

vin 5k ±?
5k±?

10k ±1%

10k ±1%

Voff A
vin
5k ±?
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 31

Example B: Interchange method.

msr
2

 true

? =
?= Offset

1°
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 32

Example B: Interchange method.

msr
2
Offset = (2°1°= 0.5°
 = (2°1° = 1.5° 1

 true

1°
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 33

Example B: Interchange method.

Offset = 0.5°

1°

 = 1.5°
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 36

Examples: Substitution method.

Two next measurement methods, compensation and bridge

methods, are, in fact, applications of the substitution method.
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method 37

3.3. Compensation method and bridge method

Compensation method removes the effect of unknown quantity
on the measurement system by compensating it with the effect
of known quantity. The degree of compensation can be
determined with a null indicator.

If the unknown effect is compensated completely, no power is

supplied or withdrawn from the unknown quantity.

The compensation method requires an auxiliary power source

that can supply precisely the same power that otherwise would
have been withdrawn from the measured quantity.

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method 38

Example: Measurement of voltage with compensation method.

Null detector

R )1( Vref

Vx R
VxVref

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method 39

NB: Note that the difference method and the null method make
use of the compensation method. In the difference method,
the compensation is only partial, whereas in the null method
it is complete.

0 0 0 0

Reference

No compensation Partial compensation Complete compensation

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method 40

Bridge method (Christie, 1833, Wheatstone, 1843)

Null detector
Rx R
R )1( Vref Vref

Vref
R
VxVref R R

’Originally was called ‘the bridge

It can be shown that the null condition does not depend on the
power delivered by the power supply, the circuits internal
impedance, or the internal impedance of the null detector.

Note that the bridge method requires a single power source.

Reference: [1]
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.4. Analogy method 41

3.4. Analogy method

Analogy method makes use of a model of the object from which
we wish to obtain measurement information.

The following models can be used.

Mathematical models (simulations).

Linear scale models (e.g., acoustics of large halls, etc.).

Non-linear scale models (e.g., wind tunnel models, etc.).

Analogy method also widely uses the analogy existing between

different physical phenomena, for example, equivalent
mechanical models are used to model electrical resonant
circuits, equivalent electrical models are used to model quartz
resonators, equivalent magnetic circuits are used to model
magnetic systems, etc.
3. MEASUREMENT METHODS. 3.5. Repetition method 42

3.5. Repetition method

Wit this method several measurements of the same unknown
quantity are conducted each according to a different procedure
to prevent the possibility of making the same (systematic)
errors, specific to a certain type of measurements. Different
(correctly applied) methods of measurements will provide
similar results, but the measurement errors in the results will be
independent of each other. This will yield an indication of the
reliability of measurements.

6 6 6
7 7 7
8 8 8
9 9 9
6 7 8 9 10 9 8 7 6 6 7 8 9 10 9 8 7 6 6 7 8 9 10 9 8 7 6
9 9 9
8 8 8
7 7 7
6 6 6

Unreliable Reliable Valid

Reference: [1]
Next lecture 43

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