THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF

BODY CONTROLING SYSTEM
NEURONS: The structural components of the nervous system…
 Structure and mechanism of a neuron (nervous cell).
 Types of neurons.
Neuroanatomy and an introduction to the Nervous system.
Structural classification…
 Central nervous system..
 Peripheral nervous system..
The Brain…
 The skull: home of the brain
 division of the brain.
 Brain structures.
How the nervous system interacts with other body systems.
References and Closure..
 NEURONS:
The structural components of the nervous
system…

 Structure and  Types of neurons.

mechanism of a neuron
(nervous cell).
 Structure and mechanism of a neuron
(nervous cell).

 The human body is made up of trillions of cells. Cells of the nervous

system, called nerve cells or neurons, are specialized to carry
"messages" through an electrochemical process. The human brain
has about 100 billion neurons that carry out the nerve impulses
through a process called action potential.

A real view showing a neuron (nerve cell)

 Structure and mechanism of a neuron
(nervous cell).
 Neurons are similar to other cells in the body because:
1. Neurons are surrounded by a cell membrane.
2. Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3. Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other "organelles".
4. Neurons carry out basic cellular processes such as protein synthesis and
energy production.
 However, neurons differ from other cells in the body because:
1. Neurons have specialized extensions called dendrites and axons. Dendrites
bring information to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell
body.
2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.
3. Neurons contain some specialized structures (for example, synapses) and
chemicals (for example, neurotransmitters).
 Neurons are the oldest and longest cells in the body! You have many
of the same neurons for your whole life. Although other cells die and are
replaced, many neurons are never replaced when they die. In fact, you
have fewer neurons when you are old compared to when you are young.
On the other hand, data published in November 1998 show that in one area
of the brain (the hippocampus), new neurons CAN grow in adult humans.

Neurons can be quite large - in some neurons, such as corticospinal

neurons (from motor cortex to spinal cord) or primary afferent neurons
(neurons that extend from the skin into the spinal cord and up to the brain
stem), can be several feet long!
 A single neuron consist of:
 CELL BODY: is the metabolic center of the neuron, contains the
Nucleus and Mitochondrion.
 DENDRITES: convey incoming messages to the cell body.
 AXON HILLOCK: a cone like region from where an axon arises.
 AXONS: generates nerve impulses and topically conduct them away
from the cell body." A nerve is a group of axons”.
 Presynaptic terminals: The swollen, distal end of an axon; contains a
neurotransmitter substance within synaptic vesicles. Also called synaptic
ending or synaptic bouton.
There are several differences between axons and dendrites:

Axons Dendrites
 Take information away  Bring information to the
from the cell body cell body
 Smooth Surface  Rough Surface (dendritic
 Generally only 1 axon per spines)
cell  Usually many dendrites
 No ribosomes per cell
 Can have myelin  Have ribosomes
 Branch further from the cell  No myelin insulation
body  Branch near the cell body
 What is inside of a neuron? A neuron has many of the same
"organelles," such as mitochondria, cytoplasm and a nucleus, as other
cells in the body.

 Nucleus - contains genetic material (chromosomes)

including information for cell development and
synthesis of proteins necessary for cell maintenance
and survival. Covered by a membrane.
 Nucleolus - produces ribosomes necessary for
translation of genetic information into proteins
 Nissl Bodies - groups of ribosomes used for protein
synthesis.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - system of tubes for
transport of materials within cytoplasm. Can have
ribosomes (rough ER) or no ribosomes (smooth ER).
With ribosomes, the ER is important for protein
synthesis.
 Golgi Apparatus - membrane-bound structure
important in packaging peptides and proteins (including
neurotransmitters) into vesicles.
 Microfilaments/Neurotubules - system of transport for
Components of a neuron materials within a neuron and may be used for
structural support.
 Mitochondria - produce energy to fuel cellular
activities.
 Types of neurons.

Neurons come in many different shapes and sizes. Some of the

smallest neurons have cell bodies that are only 4 microns wide. Some of
the biggest neurons have cell bodies that are 100 microns wide.
(Remember that 1 micron is equal to one thousandth of a millimeter!!).
 One way to classify neurons is by the number of
extensions that extend from the neuron's cell body
(soma).
 Bipolar neurons have two
processes extending from
the cell body (examples:
retinal cells, olfactory  Pseudounipolar cells
epithelium cells). (example: dorsal root
ganglion cells). Actually,
these cells have 2 axons
rather than an axon and
dendrite. One axon extends
centrally toward the spinal
 Multipolar neurons have cord, the other axon extends
many processes that toward the skin or muscle.
extend from the cell body.
However, each neuron has
only one axon (examples:
spinal motor neurons,
pyramidal neurons,
Purkinje cells).
Neurons can also be classified by the direction that
they send information:

 Sensory (or afferent) neurons: send information from sensory receptors

(e.g., in skin, eyes, nose, tongue, ears) TOWARD the central nervous
system.
 Motor (or efferent) neurons: send information AWAY from the central
nervous system to muscles or glands.
 Interneurons: send information between sensory neurons and motor
neurons. Most interneurons are located in the central nervous system.
Neuroanatomy and an introduction
to the Nervous system.
 Neuroanatomy and an introduction to the
Nervous system.

Neuroanatomy is the structure of the nervous system. To learn how

the nervous system functions, you must learn how the nervous system
is put together.
the nervous system maintains body homeostasis with electrical
signals; provides for sensation, higher mental functions, and emotional
response; and activates muscles and glands.
the nerves system is the master controlling and communicating
system of the body. Every thought, action and emotion reflects its
activity. Its signaling device, or means of communicating with body
cells, is electrical impulses, which are rapid and specific and cause
almost immediate responses.
 To carry out its normal role, the nervous system has three over
lapping functions:
1) Much like a sentry, it uses its millions of sensory receptors to
monitor changes occurring both inside and outside the body. These
changes are called stimuli, and the gathered information is called
sensory input.
2) It processes and interprets the sensory input and makes decisions
about what should be done at each moment – a process called
integration.
3) It then effects a response by activating muscles or glands
(effctors) via motor output.
Structural classification of the
nervous system
Objectives:
 Central Nervous system (CNS)
 Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)
 Structural classification of
the nervous system

The nervous system can be divided into

several connected systems that function together.
Let's take the simple division:
The Nervous System is divided into:

First: The Central Second: The Peripheral

Nervous System Nervous System
 The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is divided into two parts: the

brain and the spinal cord. The average adult human brain
weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg (approximately 3 pounds). The brain
contains about 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) and trillions
of "support cells" called glia. The spinal cord is about 43 cm
long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and
weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral column, the
collection of bones (back bone) that houses the spinal cord,
is about 70 cm long. Therefore, the spinal cord is much
.shorter than the vertebral column
 The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

1. Somatic Nervous System The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral

nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system AND
motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. The picture on the left shows
the somatic motor system. The cell body is located in either the brain or spinal
cord and projects directly to a skeletal muscle.

2. Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system is divided into

three parts: the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous
system and the enteric nervous system. The autonomic nervous system controls
smooth muscle of the viscera (internal organs) and glands The preganglionic
neuron is located in either the brain or the spinal cord. This preganglionic neuron
projects to an autonomic ganglion. The postganglionic neuron then projects to the
target organ..
In the Peripheral Nervous System, neurons can be
functionally divided in 3 ways:

1 Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central nervous

system from sense organs.
OR
Motor (efferent) - carry information away from the central nervous
system (for muscle control).

2 Cranial - connects the brain with the periphery.

OR

Spinal - connects the spinal cord with the periphery.

3 Somatic - connects the skin or muscle with the central nervous

system.

OR
Visceral - connects the internal organs with the central nervous
system.
 Some differences between the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) and the Central Nervous
System (CNS):

In the CNS, collections of neurons are called nuclei.

In the PNS, collections of neurons are called ganglia.

In the CNS, collections of axons are called tracts.

In the PNS, collections of axons are called nerves
The Brain…
 The Brain…

Although some people may think that the brain is like a bowl of jell-O,
the brain is NOT a bowl of jell-O. Unlike a bowl of jell-O, the brain is not
a uniform material. Rather, the brain is made up of many different areas,
each having a particular structure and function.
 The skull:
home of the brain
Your brain is protected by several
bones. There are eight bones that
surround your brain: one frontal bone; two
parietal bones, two temporal bones, one
occipital bone, one sphenoid bone and
one ethmoid bone. These eight bones
make up the cranium.
Another 14 bones in the face make up
the entire skull. There are also 3 small
bones in each ear. Also protecting your
brain are 3 layers of tissue called the
meninges. A few of the bones have been
colored in the diagram to the right.
 There is a large opening, called the foramen magnum, located in the
back of the occipital bone. This is where the medulla ends and projects
out of the skull. Smaller holes in the skull, called foramina, allow nerves
and blood vessels to enter and leave the cranium. The picture in the
bottom shows the base of the skull. The places in the skull where the
bones come together are called sutures. These sutures are flexible in
young children, but become fixed as you age.
 Divisions of the Brain
Divisions of the Brain

Major Division Subdivision Structures

Neocortex; Basal Ganglia; Amygdala;

Telencephalon
Prosencephalon Hippocampus; Lateral Ventricles
(Forebrain)
Thalamus; Hypothalamus;
Diencephalon
Epithalamus; Third Ventricle

Mesencephalon Tectum; Tegmentum; Cerebral

Mesencephalon
(Midbrain) Aqueduct

Rhombencephalon Metencephalon Cerebellum; Pons; Fourth Ventricle

(Hindbrain)
Myelencephalon Medulla Oblongata; Fourth Ventricle
 The subdivisions of the brain

Telencephalon
Diencephalon

Myelencephalon

Mesencephalon
(Midbrain) Metencephalon
 Lobes of the brain

The average human brain weighs about 1,400 grams (3 lb). When the brain is
removed from the skull, it looks a bit like a large pinkish-gray walnut. The brain can
be divided down the middle lengthwise into two halves called the cerebral
hemispheres. Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes by
various sulci and gyri...the sulci (or fissures) are the grooves and the gyri are the
"bumps" that can be seen on the surface of the brain. The folding of the cerebral
cortex produced by these bumps and grooves increases the amount of cerebral
cortex that can fit in the skull. (In fact, the total surface area of the cerebral cortex is
about 324 square inches - about the size of a full page of newspaper!). Although
most people have the same patterns of gyri and sulci on the cerebral cortex, no two
brains are exactly alike.
FRONTAL LOBE
 Located in front of the central
sulcus.
 Concerned with reasoning,
Lobes of the brainPARIETAL LOBE
planning, parts of speech and  Located behind the central
movement (motor cortex), sulcus.
emotions, and problem-solving.  Concerned with perception of
stimuli related to touch, pressure,
temperature and pain.
TEMPORAL LOBE
 Located below the lateral
fissure.
 Concerned with perception and OCCIPITAL LOBE
recognition of auditory stimuli  Located at the back of the brain,
(hearing) and memory behind the parietal lobe and
(hippocampus). temporal lobe.
 Concerned with many aspects of
vision.
 From a top view, notice how the brain is divided into two halves, called
hemispheres. Each hemisphere communicates with the other through the
A top view of the brain
corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers. (Another smaller fiber bundle that
connects the two hemispheres is called the anterior commissure).
Brain structures

hypothalamus

Brain stem
 Cerebral Cortex

The word "cortex" comes from the Latin

word for "bark" (of a tree). This is because
the cortex is a sheet of tissue that makes up
the outer layer of the brain. The thickness of
Functions: the cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6 mm.
 Thought The right and left sides of the cerebral cortex
 Voluntary movement are connected by a thick band of nerve fibers
called the "corpus callosum." In higher
 Language mammals such as humans, the cerebral
 Reasoning cortex looks like it has many bumps and
 Perception grooves. A bump or bulge on the cortex is
called a gyrus (the plural of the word gyrus
is "gyri") and a groove is called a sulcus (the
plural of the word sulcus is "sulci"). Lower
mammals, such as rats and mice, have very
few gyri and sulci.
 Cerebellum

Functions: The word "cerebellum" comes from the

Latin word for "little brain." The
Movement cerebellum is located behind the brain
Balance stem. In some ways, the cerebellum is
Posture similar to the cerebral cortex: the
cerebellum is divided into hemispheres
and has a cortex that surrounds these
hemispheres.
 Brain stem

Functions: The brain stem is a general term for the

area of the brain between the thalamus and
 Breathing spinal cord. Structures within the brain
 Heart Rate stem include the medulla, pons, tectum,
reticular formation and tegmentum. Some
 Blood Pressure of these areas are responsible for the most
basic functions of life such as breathing,
heart rate and blood pressure.
 Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is composed of several

different areas and is located at the base of the
brain. Although it is the size of only a pea
Functions: (about 1/300 of the total brain weight), the
 Body Temperature hypothalamus is responsible for some very
important functions. One important function of
 Emotions the hypothalamus is the control of body
 Hunger temperature. The hypothalamus acts as a
 Thirst "thermostat" by sensing changes in body
temperature and then sending signals to adjust
 Circadian Rhythms the temperature. For example, if you are too
hot, the hypothalamus detects this and then
sends a signal to expand the capillaries in your
skin. This causes blood to be cooled faster. The
hypothalamus also controls the pituitary.
 Thalamus

Functions: The thalamus receives sensory

information and relays this
Sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
The cerebral cortex also sends
processing information to the thalamus which
then transmits this information to
Movement other areas of the brain and spinal
cord.
 Midbrain

Functions: The midbrain includes structures such as

 Vision the superior and inferior colliculi and red
 Audition nucleus. There are several other areas also
 Eye Movement in the midbrain.
 Body Movement
 Pons

Functions: The pons are continuous with

 Cardiovascular and the medulla
respiratory control center.
 Medulla
Functions:
 Heart rate
 Breathing.
 Blood pressure.
 Swallowing and vomiting
How the nervous system interacts
with other body systems.

Objectives:
 skeletal system
 cardiovascular system
 muscular system
 endocrine system
 lymphatic system
 respiratory system
 digestive system
 reproductive system
 urinary system
 How the nervous system interacts
with other body systems.

All of the systems within the body interact with one

another to keep an organism healthy. Although each
system has specific functions, they are all interconnected
and dependent on one another. The nervous system
controls various organs of the body directly. The brain
also receives information from many organs of the body
and adjusts signals to these organs to maintain proper
functioning.
 The Skeletal system

Function of the skeletal system..

The skeletal system makes up the framework of the body and
allows us to move when our muscles contract. It stores minerals
(e.g. calcium, phosphorous) and releases them into the body
when they are needed. The skeletal system also protects internal
organs and produces blood cells.

Interaction with the nervous system..

 Bones provide calcium that is essential for the proper functioning of
the nervous system.
 The skull protects the brain from injury.
 The vertebrae protect the spinal cord from injury.
 Sensory receptors in joints between bones send signals about body
position to the brain.
 The brain regulates the position of bones by controlling muscles.
 The Cardio vascular system

Function of the cardiovascular system…

The cardiovascular system delivers oxygen, hormones,
nutrients and white blood cells around the body by pumping
blood, and it removes waste products.

Interaction with the nervous system…

 Endothelial cells maintain the blood-brain barrier.
 Baroreceptors send information to the brain about
blood pressure.
 Cerebrospinal fluid drains into the venous blood
supply.
 The brain regulates heart rate and blood pressure.
 The muscular system

Function of the muscular system…

Different types of muscles enable motion, generate heat to
maintain body temperature, move food through digestive tract
and contract the heart.

Interaction with the nervous system…

 Receptors in muscles provide the brain with information
about body position and movement.
 The brain controls the contraction of skeletal muscle.
 The nervous system regulates heart rate and the speed at
which food moves through the digestive tract.
 The Endocrine system

Function of the endocrine system…

The endocrine system secretes hormones into blood
and other body fluids. These chemicals are important for
metabolism, growth, water and mineral balance, and the
response to stress.

Interaction with the nervous system…

 Hormones provide feedback to the brain to affect
neural processing.
 Reproductive hormones affect the development of
the nervous system.
 The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland and
other endocrine glands.
 The Lymphatic system

Function of the lymphatic system…

The lymphatic system protects the body from
infection.

Interaction with the nervous system…

The brain can stimulate defense mechanisms against
infection
 The Respiratory System

Function of the respiratory system…

The respiratory system supplies oxygen to the blood and
removes carbon dioxide.

Interaction with the nervous system…

The brain monitors respiratory volume and blood
gas levels.
The brain regulates respiratory rate.
 The Digestive system

Function of the digestive system…

The digestive system stores and digests foods, transfers
nutrients to the body, eliminates waste and absorbs water.

Interaction with the nervous system…

 Digestive processes provide the building blocks for some
neurotransmitters.
 The autonomic nervous system controls the tone of the
digestive tract.
 The brain controls drinking and feeding behavior.
 The brain controls muscles for eating and elimination.
 The digestive system sends sensory information to the brain.
 The Reproductive system

Function of the reproductive system…

The reproductive system is responsible for producing
new life.

Interaction with the nervous system…

Reproductive hormones affect brain development
and sexual behavior.
The brain controls mating behavior.
 The Urinary system

Function of the urinary system…

The urinary system eliminates waste products and
maintains water balance and chemical balance.

Interaction with the nervous system…

The bladder sends sensory information to the
brain.
The brain controls urination.