Introduction Mine UG Safety

Depok - 2012
 UNDERGROUND MINING
Generally underground mining is adopted when the orebody is too deep and it’s not
economically or technically feasible to use an open-pit:
{Deepest “hard-rock” open pits are over 700 m deep (e.g., Palabora in South Africa and
Chuquicamata in Chile)}.

It is increasingly common to progress from open-pit to underground mining of the same orebody.

TYPES OF UNDERGROUND MINING

Soft rock mining
•Refers to a group of underground mining
techniques used to extract coal, oil shale, tar
sands, salt and other minerals or geological
materials from sedimentary ("soft") rocks.
•Because deposits in sedimentary rocks are
commonly layered and relatively less hard, the
mining methods used differ from those used to
mine deposits in igneous or metamorphic rocks
(i.e., Underground mining (hard rock)).
Hard rock mining
•Refers to various underground mining techniques
used to excavate hard minerals, mainly those containing
metals such as ore containing gold, silver, iron, copper,
zinc, nickel and lead, but also involves using the same
techniques for excavating ores of gems such as
diamonds.
It is more complex than surface mining methods:

It requires considerable more planning to take into account access, ground support,
ventilation, the effects of blasting, and haulage of material from the mine to the plant.
generally high grade deposits. more selective than open pit.


Ore extraction and underground development is achieved by precise drilling and blasting
techniques.
This is closely controlled and monitored by engineers, geologists, and surveyors.
All Underground mining methods involve:
drilling a pattern of holes into the rock.
• Charging (filling) the holes with
explosive.
• Blasting the rock.
• Bogging (digging) it out.
• Transporting it to the surface.

• Design issues:
• Geometry of underground mining.
• Ground support.
• Shaft location.
• Logistics of underground materials.

•4
Terminology
• Stopes are openings from which ore is mined. They may be backfilled with
cemented waste materials.
• Drifts are horizontal passageways used for access.
• Ore passes are sub-vertical chutes for movement of ore.
• Declines or ramps are spiral or inclined drifts.
• Output: In general for underground mines:
osmall output mines have output of < 4,000 tpd. Hauling is done on several
levels, tonnage handled on each level is small, and light equipment is used.
ohigh output mines have output of > 4,000 tpd. A main haulage level is used
and all ore is dropped to that haulage level via ore passes.
•Levels include all the horizontal workings tributary to a shaft station. Ore excavated
in a level is transported to the shaft to be hoisted to the surface.
General anatomy of a deep underground mine
·Both ore-rock and water are allowed
to feed to the bottom of the mine
under the force of gravity, and from
there are transported or pumped to
the surface.

·Note the use of “backfill” in mined-

out areas to provide support for the
overlying rock. Backfill allows ore
recovery to be maximized, because
ore is not left in-place as support
pillars.

·Backfill is generally a mixture of

cement with waste rock, sand or
tailings.
•
Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.
MINE ACCESS
i.Underground Mine Access.
ii.Ore Access.

Accessing underground ore can be achieved via a decline (ramp), inclined

vertical shaft or adit .

• To make underground mining economically

viable, access must be well planned and
efficient.

• Access to the underground orebody is based

on the understanding of its characteristics and
those of the surrounding rock.
Figure 1: A three dimensional model of an underground mine with shaft .
Development Mining vs. Production Mining
There are two principal phases of underground mining: development mining and production mining.

Development mining is composed of excavation almost entirely in (non-valuable) waste rock in order to
gain access to the orebody.

There are six steps in development mining:

i.Remove previously blasted material (muck out round),
ii.Scaling (removing any unstable slabs of rock hanging from the roof and sidewalls to
protect workers and equipment from damage),
iii.Support excavation,
iv.Drill rock face,
v.Load explosives, and
vi.Blast explosives.

Production mining is further broken down into two methods:

vii.Short hole mining is similar to development mining, except that it
occurs in ore.
viii.Long hole mining: There are several different methods of long hole
mining. Typically long hole mining requires two excavations within the ore
at different elevations below surface, (15m – 30m apart).

Holes are drilled between the two excavations and loaded with explosives. The holes are blasted and
the ore is removed from the bottom excavation
Underground Mine Ventilation
One of the most important aspects of underground hard rock mining is
ventilation. Ventilation is required to clear toxic fumes from blasting and removing
exhaust fumes from diesel equipment.
In deep hot mines ventilation is also required for cooling the workplace for
miners. Ventilation raises are excavated to provide ventilation for the workplaces, and
can be modified for use as emergency escape routes. Adequate ventilation throughout
the mine may be ensured by the provision of a separate shaft from the surface. This
has a fan that draws fresh air through the mine.
The primary sources of heat in underground hard rock mines are virgin rock
temperature, machinery, auto compression, and fi ssure water. Other small
contributing factors are human body heat and blasting.
Ground Support
Ground support is necessary when voids (empty spaces) are created underground. Some
means of support is required in order to maintain the stability of the openings that are
excavated. The competency of the rock being mined will determine how large a void may be
created and what ground support methods will be necessary to maintain a safe working
environment. This support comes in two forms:
1. Area ground support
Area ground support is used to prevent major ground failure. Holes are drilled into the back
(ceiling) and walls and a long steel rod (or rock bolt) is installed to hold the ground together.
There are three categories of rock bolt, differentiated by how they engage the host rock. They
are:
i.Mechanical bolts
ii.Grouted bolts
iii.Friction bolts
2. Local ground support
Local ground support is used to prevent smaller rocks from falling from the backs and
walls. Not all excavations require local ground support.
Welded Wire Mesh is a metal screen with 10 cm x 10 cm (4 inch) openings. It is held to the
backs using point anchor bolts or resin grouted rebar.
Shotcrete is fiber reinforced spray on concrete which coats the backs and walls preventing
smaller rocks from falling. Shotcrete thickness can be between 50 mm – 100 mm.
Stoping
Stoping is the removal of the orebody from the surrounding rock. The underground
stoping method used depends on the nature and extent of the orebody. Stoping is used for
mining deposits with the following characteristics:
• steep dip, the footwall inclination must exceed the angle of repose.
• stable rock in both hangingwall and footwall.
• both competent ore and host rock .

• regular ore boundaries.

The development of the infrastructure for

both these stoping methods shown in the
figures above is time-consuming, costly
and complex.

Figure shows stoping a narrow vein mining

orebodies may be only half a meter wide
Retreat
Retreat mining is a term used to reference the final phase of an
underground mining technique known as room and pillar mining.
This involves excavating a room or chamber while leaving behind pillars of
material for support.
This excavation is carried out in a pattern advancing away from the entrance
of a mine.
Once a deposit has been exhausted using this method, the pillars that were
left behind initially are removed (or 'pulled‘) retreating back towards the
mine's entrance.
After the pillars are removed, the roof (or back) is allowed to collapse behind
the mining area.
Pillar removal must occur in a very precise order in order to reduce the risks
to workers, due to the high stresses placed on the remaining pillars by the
abutment stresses of the caving ground.
Stope and Retreat vs. Stope and Fill
1.Stope and retreat
•Using this method, mining is planned to extract rock from the stopes
without fi lling the voids; this allows the wall rocks to cave in to the
extracted stope after all the ore has been removed. The stope is then
sealed to prevent access.

1.Stope and fill

•Where large bulk ore bodies are to be mined at great depth, or
where leaving pillars of ore is uneconomical, the open stope is filled with
backfi ll, which can be a cement and rock mixture, a cement and sand
mixture or a cement and tailings mixture.
•This method is popular as the refilled stopes provide support for
the adjacent stopes, allowing total extraction of economic resources.
 Underground Mining Methods
• The mining method used will depend on the characteristics of the orebody, particularly thickness
and dip, and the competency of the surrounding rock.
• Different methods can be used in different parts of a mine (as this plan from the Black Swan nickel
mine exemplifies). This type of planning is done continuously as mining proceeds and more data
are acquired on the orebody configuration through underground drilling.
UNDERGROUND MINING METHODS
Soft rock mining Methods Hard rock mining Methods
a.Longwall mining. 1. Selective Mining Methods:-
b.Room-and-pillar mining (or 1.1. Unsupported Mining Methods:
continuous mining). a)Room (B ord) a nd P i l l a r mi ni ng (or
c.Blast mining. continuous mining).
d.Shortwall mining. b)Shrinkage stoping.
e.Coal Skimming. 1.2. Supported Mining Methods:
a.Cut and fill mining.
b.Square-set stoping
c.Stull mining.
2. Caving (or Bulk) Mining methods:
d.Longwall mining.
e.Sublevel caving stoping.
f.Block caving stoping.
•Note:-

Blast mining
• An older practice of coal mining that uses explosives such as dynamite to break up the coal
seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded onto shuttle cars or conveyors for
removal to a central loading area.
• This process consists of a series of operations that begins with "cutting" the coal bed so it
will break easily when blasted with explosives.
• This type of mining accounts for less than 5% of total underground production in the U.S.
today.

Shortwall mining
• A coal mining method that accounts for less than 1% of deep coal production, shortwall
involves the use of a continuous mining machine with moveable roof supports, similar to
longwall.
• The continuous miner shears coal panels 150–200 feet wide and more than a half-mile
long, depending on other things like the strata of the Earth and the transverse waves.

Coal Skimming
•While no longer in general use, because of the massive amount of water needed
and environmental damage thereof, in the late 1930s DuPont developed a method that was
much faster and less labour intensive than previous methods to separate the lighter coal
from the mining refuse (e.g. slate) called "coal skimming" or the "sink and float method".
 •Underground Mining Methods
The mining method used will depend on the characteristics of the orebody, particularly
thickness and dip, and the competency of the surrounding rock.
Different methods can be used in different parts of a mine (as this plan from the Black Swan
nickel mine exemplifies). This type of planning is done continuously as mining proceeds and more
data are acquired on the orebody configuration through underground drilling.
Underground methods are usually classified in three categories of methods:
•

•
1. Selective Mining Methods:-
•
1.1. Unsupported Mining Methods:
a.Room (Bord) and Pillar mining (or
•

•
continuous mining).
b.Shrinkage stoping. • They are differentiated by the
•

1.2. Supported Mining Methods: type of wall and roof supports

c.Cut and fill mining. used, the configuration and size of
•

d.Square-set stoping production openings, and the

direction in which mining
e.Stull mining.
•

operations progress.
•

2. Caving (or Bulk) Mining methods: • The major distinction between

f.Longwall mining. the different underground mining
•

g.Sublevel caving stoping. methods is whether the mined

h.Block caving stoping. out areas remain supported after
mining, or if they are allowed to
collapse
1. Selective Mining Methods:-
i. Unsupported Mining Methods:
• Unsupported methods of mining are used to extract mineral deposits
that are roughly tabular (plus flat or steeply dipping) and are generally
associated with strong ore and surrounding rock.
• These methods are termed unsupported because they do not use any
artificial pillars to assist in the support of the openings.
• However, generous amounts of roof bolting and localized support
measures are often used.
a.Room (Bord) and Pillar mining.
b.Shrinkage Stoping.
• The Room-(Bord)- and –pillar mining methods account for almost all of the
underground mining in horizontal deposits in the United States and a very high
proportion of the underground tonnage as well.
 Room (Bord)-and-Pillar Layout

Figure shows Room and Pillar Mining

•Note the control of

ventilation, i.e., the separation
of contaminated (used) and
uncontaminated (fresh) air
using a variety of devices.
•
Underground mining: room-and-pillar mining of thick seams –“benching”

Figure shows Room and Pillar is designed for mining flat, bedded
deposits of limited thickness.

Different approaches allow either the top or

bottom part of the seam to be mined out first.

Note: the “hangingwall” is above the mining

cavity, and the “footwall” is below it.

Figures from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

 b) Shrinkage Stoping
• It is a short hole mining method which is suitable for steeply dipping orebodies.
• Mining progresses upward, with horizontal slices of ore being blasted along the length of
the stope. A portion of the broken ore is allowed to accumulate in the stope to provide a
working plat form for the miners and is there after withdrawn from the stope through chutes.
• The method is similar to cut and fill mining with the exception that after being blasted,
broken ore is left in the stope where it is used to support the surrounding rock and as a
platform from which to work.
• Only enough ore is removed from the stope to allow for drilling and blasting the next slice.
• The stope is emptied when all of the ore has been blast
• Although it is very selective and allows for low dilution, in the stope until mining is
completed there is a delayed investments.[3]
• It is more suitable than sublevel stoping for stronger ore

• Note: Sublevel stoping differs from shrinkage

•stoping by providing sublevels from which vertical
•slices are blasted. In this manner, the stope is mined
•horizontally from one end to the other.
 Unsupported Underground Mining Methods
Factor Room and Pillar Mining Shrinkage Stoping

Ore strength Weak \ Moderate Strong

Rock strength Moderate \ Strong Strong
Deposit shape Tabular Tabular \ lenticular
Deposit dip Low \ Flat Fairly steep
Deposit size Large \ Thin Thin \ Moderate.
Ore grade Moderate Moderate
Ore uniformity Uniform Uniform
Depth Shallow \ Moderate Moderate
In “unsupported” mining, the mine-workings are supported temporarily
only for as long as needed to keep the active face open to mining.
After mining, the support (e.g. hydraulic props or wood packs) is
removed (or becomes crushed), and the mining cavities close up under
the pressure of the overburden material. The cavity closure is either
partial, for shallow mining, or complete, for deep level mining.

While unsupported mining is advantageous in that it maximizes ore

recovery (as little ore as possible is left behind) the method comes with
significant problems:
• Surface subsidence in the case of shallow mines.
• Rockbursts underground, causing injury and death in deep
levelmines.
ii. Supported Mining Methods
Supported mining methods are often used in mines with weak rock structure.
a) Cut and fill mining method
• It is one of the more popular methods used for vein deposits and has recently grown in use.
• It is an expensive but selective mining method, with low ore loss and dilution. [3] (i.e., allows selective mining
and avoid mining of waste or low grade ore).
• It is a method of short hole miningused in steeply dipping or irregular ore zones and scattered
mineralization, in particular where the hangingwall limits the use of long hole methods.
• It requires working at face (which is less safe than longhole stoping).
• It is the most common of supported mining methods and is used:-
oin mining steeply dipping orebodies in stable rock masses (primarily in steeply dipping
metal deposits), strata with good to moderate stability, and comparatively high grade
mineralization.
oEither fill option may be consolidated with concrete, or left unconsolidated.
o Bottom up mining method: Remove ore in horizontal slices, starting from a bottom undercut
and advancing upward (See Figure).
o Moderate production rates.
o Good resource usage.
o Not stress friendly.
• Ore is drilled, blasted and removed from stope.
• The ore is mined in slices: As each horizontal or slightly inclined slice is taken, the voids (Opens) are
backfilled with a variety of fill types to support the walls. (i.e., the fill can be rock waste, tailings, cemented
tailings, or other suitable materials)
{(note: The fill serves both to support the stope walls and provide a working platform for equipment
when the next slice is mined)}.
 Ore is drilled, blasted and
removed from stope

Remove ore in horizontal slices, starting

from a bottom undercut and advancing
upward.

As each horizontal slice is taken, the

voids (Opens) are filled with a variety of
Figure showing cut and fill mining method.
fill types to support the walls. (i.e., the fill
can be rock waste, tailings, cemented
tailings, or other suitable materials).
 Example of Pre Feasibility

Boxcut
Current Orebody

Diamond Drill Locations

Exploration Decline

Possible
Expansion

Looking West
 Benchmark: Cut & Fill Method

• Red Lake, 60g/t Au, Goldcorp, Ontanio

– Multiple width development drift UHCAF with paste
fill
– US$200/t site costs (high due to deep issues and
hoisting via staged shafts), 700tpd from 12 faces
• Deep Post, Au, Newmont, Nevada
– Multiple width development ‘herringbone’ UHCAF
with cemented aggregate fill
– 1600 tpd from 15 faces
• Black Swan, Ni, Lion Ore, WA
– Single width development UHCAF with paste fill
(planned)
• Lucky Friday, Pb/Ag, Idaho
– OHCAF, UHCAF single drift
– US$120/t site costs, 250tpd equiv.
• Galena, Pb/Ag, Idaho
– OHCAF, UHCAF, 750 tpd equiv.
• Chinese Nickel and Gold Mines (Eg Fujia)
 • Because the method involves moving fill material as well as a significant amount of drilling and
blasting, it is relatively expensive and therefore is done only in high grade mineralization where
there is a need to be selective and avoid mining of waste or low grade ore.
• It is practiced both in the overhand (upward) and in the underhand (downward) directions.
i) Overhand (upward) cut and fill
ois applied to ore lies underneath the working area and the roof is backfill.
oinvolves a work area of cemented backfill while mining ore from the roof.
ii) Underhand (Downward) cut and fill ore
ois applied to ore lies beneath the working area and the roof is cemented backfill.
oore overlies the working area and the machines work on backfill.

•Note: Drift and Fill is similar to cut and

fill, except it is used in ore zones which are
wider than the method of drifting will allow
to be mined. In this case the first drift is
developed in the ore, and is backfilled using
consolidated fill. The second drift is driven
adjacent to the first drift. This carries on
until the ore zone is mined out to its full
width, at which time the second cut is
started atop of the first cut.
 b) Square-set stoping
• The square-set stoping method is used where the ore is weak, and the walls are
not strong enough to support themselves.
• The value of the ore must be relatively high, for square-setting is slow, expensive,
and requires highly skilled miners and supervisors.
• In square-set stoping, one small block of ore is removed and replaced by a "set" or
cubic frame of timber which is immediately set into place.
• The timber sets interlock and are filled with broken waste rock or sand fill, for they
are not strong enough to support the stope walls.
• The waste rock or sand fill is usually added after one tier of sets, or stope cut, is
made.
• Square-set stoping also involves backfilling mine voids; however, it relies mainly on
timber sets to support the walls during mining.
• This mining method is rapidly disappearing in North America because of the high
cost of labor.
• However, it still finds occasional use in mining high-grade ores or in countries
where labor costs are low.
•

•Raise set

•Fill
•S W I M S •Ore
•AMEMMIIIIM
Floor
•Vertical Section

•locking
•Post •/1
•Lead set 11
•Corner set

•Ore

•Square-Set Timbering Plan of mining floor

Figure shows Square-set stoping

 c) Stull stoping

• is a supported mining method using timber or rock bolts in tabular, pitching ore
bodies.
• is one of the methods that can be applied to ore bodies that have dips between
10o and 45o.
• often utilizes artificial pillars of waste to support the roof.

•Supported Mining Methods

Factor Cut and Fill Mining Square Set Stoping

Ore strength Moderate \ strong weak

Rock strength Weak weak

Deposit shape Tap \ irregular Any

Deposit dip Fairly steep Any

Deposit size Thin \ Moderate Usually small

Ore grade Fairly high High

Ore uniformity Variable Variable

Depth Moderate \ deep Deep

2. Caving (or Bulk) Mining methods:

• Caving methods are varied and versatile and involve caving the ore and/or the
overlying rock.
• Subsidence of the surface normally occurs afterward.
 a) Longwall stoping
·is a caving method particularly well adapted to relatively flat-lying, thin, planar deposits or horizontal
seams, usually coal, at some depth.
·is suitable for tabular orebodies, with moderate dip (e.g., coal and stratiform hard-rock ores like
diamond deposits).
·Need to divide orebody to "face" or the "working face“. The collection of cuts, cross-cuts, and pillars all together
make up a "panel" and all the equipment that goes together to operate in that panel is a "unit or Longwall units".
·In this method, a face of considerable length (a long face or wall) is maintained, and as the mining progresses,
the overlying strata are caved, thus promoting the breakage of the coal itself.
·Applied to longer (~100 m) and longer diameter blastholes (i.e., thus requiring less drilling than sublevel stoping).
·Greater drilling accuracy is required.
·Need to a longwall machine(It's designed to let the roof fall behind it, and mines out big rooms in which the
roof almost immediately collapses, leaving only a small entryway and the metal barrier that protects the longwall unit

·Traditionally high production •LONGWALL GENERAL LAYOUT

rates.
·Large openings with long open
times.
·High ground support cost .
·Bottom up mining method.
·Non-selective mining.
·Not stress friendly.
·Many equipment types.
•Top Gate
•Longwall mining method
includes drivage of two
•Face long roadways in coal and
joining them at the end by
a perpendicular drivage
forming a face.
•Bottom Gate
• Figure shows "Slim-size" machines including drill rigs, jumbos, and 2 m 3 bucket LHDs, are
available for working in drifts as narrow as 2 m.
Longwall Mining
•fulimp SurFace
Fadities

•Pre wintisly Mined !

•1.QnbrEin F. Pvlid
•_
•Cad Shiater
aril 11114f Supports

••

• Cpal Ccirrinayar
to Surrace

•Coal PillaffsRetaipad
•for Roof Suff act

•Direction of Mining

•Longerall Panel
•to the Mined

•Continimpus Miners
Developi‘ellowlways

•CQPI SqPral
SCHEMATIC OF LONGWALL PANEL
(HANGINGWALL STRIPPED AWAY FOR
ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES)
•“Permanent” support,
often timber packs, will
remain in place after
mining. With time, these
become deformed or
completely crushed –as part
of the “controlled” closure
of the panel.
•Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.
•Protective screen
•In hard-rock minerals mining a
“scraper” is pulled down the
length of the stope face after
drilling and blasting, to collect the
fragmented ore rock.
•In coal mining, a mechanized
•Temporary support cutting device is run along the
near the working face: length of the coal face.
often hydraulic props.
Example: Longwall Mining of Coal
Longwall mining is a highly mechanized underground mining system for mining coal.
It set of longwall mining equipment consists of a coal shearer mounted on conveyor
operating underneath a series of self-advancing hydraulic roof supports.
Almost the entire process can be automated.
Longwall mining machines are typically 150-250 meters in width and 1.5 to 3 meters
high.
Longwall miners extract "panels" - rectangular blocks of coal as wide as the
face the equipment is installed in, and as long as several kilometers.
A layer of coal is selected and blocked out into an area known as a panel (A typical
panel might be 3000 m long X 250 m wide).
Passageways would be excavated along the length of the panel to provide access and to
place
•http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil:SL500_01.j
•a conveying system to transport material out of the mine.
Entry tunnels would be constructed from the passageways along the width of the panel.
Extraction is an almost continuous operation involving the use of: self-advancing
hydraulic roof supports sometimes called shields, a shearing machine, and a conveyor which
runs parallel to the face being mined.
Powerful mechanical coal cutters (Shearers) cut coal from the face, which falls
onto an armoured face conveyor for removal.
The longwall system would mine between entry tunnels.
Longwalls can advance into an area of coal, or more commonly, retreat back
between development tunnels (called "Gate roads")
As a longwall miner retreats back along a panel, the roof behind the supports is
allowed to collapse in a planned and controlled manner.
Longwall Mining Machine
•http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb
/5/5d/Schildausbau.jpg/220px-Schildausbau.jpg

•It's designed to let the roof fall behind it, and mines
out big rooms in which the roof almost immediately
collapses, leaving only a small entryway and the metal
barrier that protects the longwall unit.

•Figure shows Hydraulic chocks

•http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Longwallwit
hhydraulicchocks%2Cconveyorandshearer.jpg/220px-
Longwallwithhydraulicchocks%2Cconveyorandshearer.jpg

Figure shows Hydraulic chocks, conveyor and shearer 38

 •http://wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo
n s/thumb/1/19/SL500_01.jpg/

•igure 12c:Longwall system in place.

Fig 12a: Passageway Figure 12b: A typical panel is 3000 m long by 250 m •Mechanized cutting machineon a
•wide
•longwall coal-mining face.

Figure shows another continuous miner in an underground coal mine.

 Anatomy of a Coal Mine •DUST PUMPS SHOULD BE WORN
BY OPERATORS or THE RO01-
•GRAPHICS BY WES KENDALL BOLTER AND THE CONTINUOUS
THE COURIER-JOURNAL MINING 1.440H1bE

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•ROOF BOLTS
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Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection

Bureau of Deep Mine Safety
 Under Ground Coal Mine
Then And Now

•http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SL500_01.jpg
•Mechanized cutting machine on a longwall coal-mining
• Pennsylvania Department of Environmental face: SHEARER WORKING AT LONGWALL FACE.
Protection Bureau of Deep Mine Safety
•

Deep level gold mining, South Africa

Stope face with temporary support

•Stopes
(yellow): on-
reef excavations
where the reef
(orebody) is
mined.

•http://www.bullion.org.za/MiningEducation/Images/images/
CrossSectMine.jpg

• •4 2
Work Face at South African Gold Mine
 •b) Sublevel Caving Stoping
• It is used to mine large orebodies with steep dip tabular or massive deposit and continuation at depth
• The ore is extracted via sublevels which are developed in the orebody at regular vertical spacing.
• Each sublevel has a systematic layout of parallel drifts, along or across the orebody.
• Sublevel stoping recovers the ore from open stopes separated by access drifts each connected to a ramp.
• The orebody is divided into sections about 100 m high and further divided laterally into alternating stopes
and pillars.
• A main haulage drive is created in the footwall at the bottom, with cut-outs for draw-points connected to
the stopes above. The bottom is V-shaped to funnel the blasted material into the draw-points.
• Longhole rigs drill the ore section above a drift. The ore in the stope is blasted, collected in the draw-
points, and hauled away.
• Blasting on each sublevel starts at the hangingwall and mining then proceeds toward the footwall.
• Blasting removes support for the hangingwall, which collapses into the drift.
• As mining progresses downward, each new level is caved into the mine openings, with the ore materials
being recovered while the rock remains behind.
• Loading continues until it is decided that waste dilution is too high Work then begins on a
nearby drift heading with a fresh cave.
• As mining removes rock without backfilling, the hangingwall keeps caving into the void. Continued mining
results in subsidence of the surface, causing sink holes to appear. Ultimately, the ground surface on top of
the orebody subsides (Fig.18).
• However, the stopes are normally backfilled with consolidated mill tailings after being mined out (This
allows for recovery of the pillars of unmined ore between the stopes, enabling a very high recovery of
the orebody).

•29 November 2011 44

Figure : Sublevel stoping Fig. : longhole stoping and removing ore after blasting
•

•Figure shows sublevel caving is used to

•continuation at depth.

Figure shows Continued mining results in

• subsidence of the surface, causing sink holes
to appear.
Ultimately, the ground surface on top
of the orebody subsides.
 •c) Block Caving stoping
• Block-caving method is employed generally for steeply dipping ores, and thick sub-
horizontal seams of ore. The method has application, for example in sulphide
deposits and underground kimberlite (diamond) mining.
• It is most applicable to :-
oA large-scale or bulk mining method that is highly productive, low in
cost, and used primarily on massive steeply dipping orebodies that must be
mined underground.
oWeak or moderately strong orebodies that readily break up when
caved.
oLarge, deep (>two km deep), low-grade deposits with high friability

• It is often done to continue mining after open pit mining becomes uneconomic or
impossible. However, some mines start as block cave operations (e.g., There are
several of these in Chile. Rio Tinto is considering a deep at the Resolution deposit to
the east of Phoenix).
• A grid of tunnels is driven under the orebody The rock mass is then
undercut by blasting.
• Ideally the rock will break under its own weight Broken ore is then taken
from draw points.
• There may be hundreds of draw points in a large block cave operation (Fig.20).
• An undercut with haulage access is driven under the orebody, with "drawbells"
•excavated between the top of the haulage level and the bottom of the undercut.
The drawbells serve as a place for caving rock to fall into.
• The orebody is drilled and blasted above the undercut, and the ore is removed via the
haulage access.
• Due to the friability of the orebody the ore above the first blast caves and falls into
the drawbells. As ore is removed from the drawbells the orebody caves in providing a
steady stream of ore[3].
• If caving stops and removal of ore from the drawbells continues, a large void may form,
resulting in the potential for a sudden and massive collapse and potentially catastrophic
windblast throughout the mine.[4]
• Where caving does continue, the ground surface may collapse into a surface depression
such as those at the Climax and Henderson molybdenum mines in Colorado. Such a
configuration is one of several to which miners apply the term "glory hole".
• Orebodies that do not cave readily are sometimes preconditioned by hydraulic
fracturing, blasting, or by a combination of both. Hydraulic fracturing has been applied
to preconditioning strong roof rock over coal longwall panels, and to inducing caving
in both coal and hard rock mines.
• Essentially block caving creates an underground 'inverted open pit'. Surface subsidence
can be a problem....???.
•

Figure shows application of the

Block caving to large, deep, low-
grade deposits

Figure shows hundreds of draw

points to take broken ore in a
large block cave operation

www.ivanhoe-mines.com/s/Mongolia_ImageGallery 49
Surface •An undercut tunnel is driven under the orebody,
•TOP OF OREBODY with "drawbells“ excavated above. Caving rock
falls into the drawbells. The orebody is drilled and
•OREBODY blasted above the undercut to initiate the “caving”
process. As ore is continuously removed from the
drawbells, the orebody continues to cave
spontaneously, providing a steady stream of ore. If
spontaneous caving stops, and removal of ore
from the drawbells continues, a large void may
form, resulting in the potential for a sudden and
massive collapse and a potentially catastrophic
Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002. windblast throughout the mine(e.g., the
Northparks Mine disaster, Australia).
Block-cave mining: Mud-rushes –an under-reported hazard
Mud-rushes are sudden infl ows of mud from ore drawpoints (or other
underground openings), in block-cave mines that are open to the surface .
Considerable violence, in the form of an airblast, is often associated with
mud-rushes . Mud-rushes are (under-reported) hazardous occurrences that
have occurred frequently in mines in South Africa, as well as in Chile and
Western Australia, and have caused fatalities (Butcher et al., 2005).

•Mud is produced by the

breakdown of rock in the near-
surface muckpile in the presence
of rainwater.

•Kimberlite rock on diamond

mines is particularly susceptible
to weathering by rainwater.

SCHEMATIC CUT-AWAY VIEW OF SUB-LEVEL BLOCK-CAVE MINE

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.
Effect of Mineral extraction upon displacement of country rock and surface
Workings and voids formed after extraction of mineral gets filled with time by the
caving rock so that the rock over the deposit may deformed and subside.

This phenomenon is called "Displacement of rock". Displacement causes smooth

subsidence of the earth's surface without ruptures, or abrupt subsidence with
considerable movements, caving and collapses.

The rock displacement zone include:- "a

caving zone" within which the displacement
is accompanied by the fault and destruction
of layers and the separation of lumps and
blocks from the solid;
"a cracking zone" which is an area of rock
discontinuity and cracks;
"a smooth-displacement zone" wherein rock
features plastics deformation without
discontinuities.

The earth's surface area which experienced

displacement is called a "trough".

Figure shows Effect of Mineral extraction upon displacement of country rock and
surface as well as rock displacement in mining.
Example for Block Caving Production

Figure shows large fragments of ore are a problem because they cannot be easily transported?.
•Usually they have to be broken up by secondary
blasting, which costs money and time.
• Note: Both block caving and longwall mining are widely used
because of their high productivity.

Caving (or Bulk) Mining Methods

Factor Longwall stoping Block caving stoping

Ore strength A ny Weak \ Moderate

Rock strength Weak \ Moderate Weak \ Moderate
Deposit shape Tabular Massive \ thick
Deposit dip Low \ flat Fairly steep
Deposit size Thin \wide Very thick
Ore grade Moderate Low
Ore uniformity Uniform Uniform
Depth Moderate \ deep Moderate
•Ore Removal
• In mines which use rubber tired equipment for coarse ore removal, the ore (or
•"muck") is removed from the stope (referred to as "mucked out" or "bogged")
•using center articulated vehicles (referred to as boggers or LHD [i.e., Load, Haul,
•Dump]). These pieces of equipment may operate using diesel or electric engines
•and resemble a low-profile front end loader.
• In shallower mines , the ore is then dumped into a truck to be hauled to the
•surface.
• In deeper mines the ore is dumped down an ore pass (a vertical or near
vertical
•excavation) where it falls to a collection level. On the collection level, it may
•receive primary crushing via jaw or cone crusher. The ore is then moved by
•conveyor belts, trucks or occasionally trains to the shaft to be hoisted to the
•surface in buckets or skips and emptied into bins beneath the surface headframe
•for transport to the mill.
• In some cases the underground primary crusher feeds an inclined
•conveyor belt which delivers ore via an incline shaft direct to the
•surface. The ore is fed down ore passes, with mining equipment
•accessing the ore body via a decline from surface.

•29 November 2011 55

 UNIT OPERATIONS OF MINING
Ore extraction and underground development is achieved by precise drilling and blasting
techniques.
• Drilling a pattern of holes into the rock.
• Charging (filling) the holes with explosive.
• Blasting the rocks.
• Bogging (digging) it out.
• Ground support.
• Transporting it to the surface.
During the development and exploitation stages of mining when natural materials are
extracted from the earth, remarkably similar unit operations are normally employed.
The unit operations of mining are the basic steps used to produce mineral from the
deposit, and the auxiliary operations that are used to support them. The steps
contributing directly to mineral extraction are production operations, which constitute
the production cycle of operations.
The production cycle employs unit operations that are normally grouped into rock
breakage and materials handling. Breakage generally consists of drilling and blasting and
materials handling encompasses loading or excavation and haulage (horizontal transport)
and sometimes hoisting (vertical or inclined transport).
The Mining Production Cycle includes the following steps:-
• Drill holes.
• Blast. Production Cycle =
• Mining machinery. Drill + Blast + Load + Haulage
• Load .
• Haulage.
• Repeat until orebody is depleted.
 Mining Process used in Underground Mining methods

•ROAD HEADERS
Drilling •CONTINUOUS MINERS Drill
•| |
•Supporting
Permitted explosives
•Ventilation Blasting
|
•Pumping |
Manual/ SDL/ LHD/Scraper
Loading
•| |
Manual/ SDL/ LHD/Scraper
•SDL/ LHD/Scraper Hauling |
•|
Transpo
rting Tubs, Conveyors, etc
|
| Processing
Processing/Washing
 •Reference
1.de la Vergne, Jack (2003). Hard Rock Miner's Handbook. Tempe/North Bay: McIntosh
Engineering. pp.2. ISBN 0-9687006-1-6.
2.Fowler, JCW; Hebblewhite, BK (2003).
•"http://www.mining.unsw.edu.au/Publications/publications_staff/Paper_Fowler_AGCM_2003.pdf".
New South Wales.
•http://www.mining.unsw.edu.au/Publications/publications_staff/Paper_Fowler_AGCM_2003.pdf
1."TauTona, Anglo Gold, South Africa". 2009.
2.http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/ tautona_goldmine/
3.Howard Hartman and Jan Mutmansky, 2007. Introductory Mining Engineering, 2nd
Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 584p.
4.Lottermoser, B. (2007). Mine Wastes: Characterization, Treatment and Environmental
Impacts, 2nd Edition. by Springer, Berlin Heidelberg.
5.Puhakka, Tulla (1997). Underground Drilling and Loading Handbook. Finland: Tamrock
Corporation. pp.153–170.
6.Puhakka, Tulla (1997). Underground Drilling and Loading Handbook. Finland: Tamrock
Corporation. pp. 98–130.
7.Spitz, K. and Trudinger,J. (2009). Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal.
CRC Press, Leiden.
8.Tatiya, R.R., 2005 Surface and underground excavations: methods, techniques &
equipment. A.A. Bakema, 579p.

•29 November 2011 59