SET–BEFORES, MET-BEFORES

AND LONG-TERM LEARNING

 Categorizatioon
Based on three foundational  Encapsulation
set befores  Definition
 1) THE NOTION OF SET BEFORE
Mathematical thinking is based on three foundational

RECOGNITION of REPETITION of actions to LANGUAGE to name

pattern, similarities build into repeatable and refine concepts
and differences. sequences encountered

An evolutionary combination of  A sequence of actions may be  Human attribute that distinguished

mental facilities that we share with
other species:
With 3 levels (formulate by Donald.)
• Selective binding of different
aspect of thought.
• Being able to recognize the same
entity from differing viewpoints
• Reflect on events and concepts to
make further mental connections.
repeated until it can be performed
automatically.
 Builds on second level short term
awareness that links together
events as they happen in time &
with practice, the step become an
overall repeatable sequence.
 It is the basis of procedural
thinking.
Homo Sapiens from all other
species.
 Although many other species have
subtle systems of signals that
enable communication, the spoken
and written language of Homo
sapiens sets it apart in its ability to
develop successive level of
sophisticated thinking.

If we put together the ability to repeat actions with the facility to categorize concepts,
then we can categorize the potential infinity of counting numbers in a new way.
 2.0 Met-Before
 “Metaphor is at the root of human thought and
communication; a particular experience, the target, is
about in term s of another , the source”-George Lakoff
and friend.
 Build a whole system of language to speak of time, not in
only in direct terms.
 Met before ;- to describe how we interpret new situations
in terms of experiences we have met before.
 the philosophical notion of ‘metaphor’ and the cognitive
notion of ‘met before’ have much common where both
link a new experience to an experience that is already
familiar.
 To rationalize a new problematic situation, it may be
helpful to encourage the learner to recall a situation where
the ideas worked and continue to work.
 Supportive and problematic met-befores arise naturally in
learning.
2.1 Counting
 The path to learning number & arithmetic begins with
counting and the transformation of the operation of
counting into flexible concept of number.
 Some students imagine counter in their mind or visualized
the movement of things to do simple math.
 A focus on objects is limited to what can be handled by the
brains small focus of attention but calculated help to
solved it.
 A few studies had be made & had conclude that :
 child may be assisted by focusing on relationships in
arithmetic to build a flexible approach to number.
 The focus on counting may be so strong that it is difficult to
shift from counting ten distinct objects to see it as a single
unit of ten.
 It is important to find ways of helping them make sense
appropriate to their own needs in terms of counting.
 2.2 Difference &
Take Away 2.3 Grouping 2.4 Sharing
Technically, the ideas of Multiplication is often introduced by Sharing is an operation familiar
subtraction is depend on taking several groups of elements with children where it on ideology
children’s understanding having the same number in each of “fair shares.”
regarding on addition. group.
As a result the introduction to
The words ‘difference’ is often used Somehow with difference fractions usually focuses on the
without a sense of direction explanation of analogy practicalities of halves, quarters and
regarding on multiplication will eighths.
Practically take–away always start cause the disaster of thinking by
with the larger number and takes Multiplication is often introduced by
students.
away the smaller. taking several groups of elements
having the same number in each
However many curricular around the
Column arithmetic is introduced and group.
world are aware that there is a clear
use the concept of ‘to borrow’ or
difference between the two different Desire to begin with a practical
‘decompose the next column’ but its
ways of interpreting the operations of operation can lead to their fair shares
takes time for students to adapt the
multiplication. with focusing on the more general idea
ideas.
of fraction will cause a problematic met
A child who has the concept of before.
If children feel insecure and cling to
conservation of number will know While children & adults have
the old ideas of ‘difference’, they
that a given set will always have the strategies for a practical sharing, the
may try to cope by ‘learning what
same number of elements, no matter translation of this experience into the
to do’ without understanding how
the ordering of counting. arithmetic of fraction is often
the procedures work
problematic.
 2.5 Fraction
However the ideas on This viewpoint naturally
Many said that fractions The notion of fraction is
translating fraction into leads to the observation ‘of
difficult both in terms of often introduced as an
visual perception do mean multiply’ but it can be
the notion of equivalence object, thus it cause
encourage student to totally opaque to a learner
and the operations of fraction is seen flexibility
acknowledge the ideas meeting the idea for the first
fractional arithmetics. as a process.
of fraction. time.

2.6 The problematic difference between counting & measuring

There is a fundamental
distinction between counting
& measuring
Counting involves object
while measuring requires the
choice of unit.
In counting, we collect
In measurement, multiplication A child with flexible understanding of
individual objects into
depends on particular context on whole number arithmetic is more likely
collections and count those
which it occur where generally to use visually context knowledge to
collections where
multiplication of measurements make sense, in other word, flexible
multiplication arises from
involving unit of different kinds facility with symbolism can help make
taking collections of equal
gives a composite unit sense of embodiment.
size.

2.7 Negative Quantities

In counting, we collect
Arithmetic based on A child who only counts is less
individual objects into
counting collections of likely to make sense of this
collections and count those
objects becomes conception, while a child with a
collections where
problematic when flexible grasp pf arithmetic and
multiplication arises from
negative numbers are the number line may find it to
taking collections of equal
introduced. be a pleasurable insight.
size.
 2.8 The Minus Sign In Remedial
College Mathematics
1) The long-term development of the minus sign
and the fragility of its meaning was revealed in
all its glory by the research of Mercedes
McGowen
2) The idea from arithmetic that the minus sign
referred to a negative quantity become widely
problematic toward student.
3) As mathematics becomes more sophisticated,
the meaning of minus sign changes in subtle
ways, including :
a) The operation of ‘difference’ between two
unsigned numbers
b) The operation of ‘subtraction’ which is
only possible when taking a smaller
number from a larger
c) The concept of ‘negative number’ such as
-3 where subtraction is always possible
and the subtraction of -3 gives the same
answer as adding +3
d) The additive inverse of –x which can
now be negative, zero or positive for
numerical value of x which is
respectively positive, zero or negative.
2.9 The Transition To Algebra
1) The transition to algebra seems to be simple for
a few but traumatic for many.
2) An expression in algebra such as 3+4x does not
have an answer unless x is known.
3) Furthermore, attempts to read algebraic
expressions from left to right can be quite
misleading.
4) For students who are flexible with the symbolic
operations in arithmetic, it may be simple and
pleasing to realize that is relate to general
operation.
5) The flexible thinker with a sense of generalized
patterns in arithmetic likely to find the step
from arithmetic to algebra relatively
straightforward.
6) While the students who focuses on arithmetic
only as procedures is likely to find algebra even
more problematics.
2.10 Apples And Bananas, Meters
And Centimeters
1. learners will already have experiences in which
letters are used to stand for units or object.
2. A meaning in which a letters stands for a unit or
an object may be evoked when the learner
encounters algebra for the first time.
3. The interpretation even extends to allow
substitution, however using letters to stand for
objects becomes problematic in algebraic
manipulation.
2.11 Students And Professors
Write an equation using the variables S and P to
represents the following statement: “there are six
times as many students as professors at this
university.” use S for the number of students and P
for the number of professors.
1. The correct interpretation of the task, , however
is S=6P.
2. The use of letters to represent objects or units
creates a met-before that causes individuals to
reverse the algebraic meaning in the S/P
problem.
 2.12 Procedural And Proceptual Solutions
Of Equation

 Initially, thinking of algebraic expression as operations of

evaluations can be helpful in solving simple equations.

For examples: 3x + 2 = 8
 An alternative approach is possible by thinking of the
 The equation usually solved by interpreting the two sides as equation as a balance.
 Lima & Tall (2008) instead of ‘adding (or subtracting) the
equal quantities and ‘doing the same things to both sides to
produces a solution in a sequence of steps. same thing to both sides’; many student said :
• Move the symbol over the other sides and change its
 Filloy and Rojano (1989) named this phenomenon the sign.
• Move the symbol over the other sides and put it
‘didactic cut’ between arithmetic and algebra
underneath.
 A simple equation of form “expression=number” can be
 These students seem to imaging ‘moving the symbol around’
solved by arithmetic operations alone while an equation with
algebraic expressions on both sides requires the student ti as a mental thought experiment, but just moving them is not
manipulate algebraic symbols. enough.
 The student in this study generally operate by shifting the
symbols around and adding a touch of ‘magic’ to get the right
answer.
 2.13 Analysis Of Data In Solving
Linear Equations
1) Different approaches to solving linear equations:
- Using a balance (embodiment)
- Undoing an equation (symbolic)
- Doing the same thing to both sides (general principle)
 A symbolic approach leads to the didactic cut
 An embodied balance approach is supportive for simple equation
 The principle of doing the same thing to both side is supportive
for students who already have flexible view of arithmetic.
2.15 Further Difficulties
 
- The consequences of problematic met-befores continues
throughout the mathematic curriculum.
- For example: and it is reasonable to use 
- To generalize from whole number powers to fractional and
negative power requires the power rule to be used as general
principle.
=2
2.14 Quadratic Equation
 
1) Students found difficulty in manipulating symbols, thus they
mainly on the formula to solve equations ;
2) Some students who already solved equations by shifting
symbols around, interpreted an equation such as as an
operation, to formulate a third principle for shifting symbols by
“passing a square to other side where it becomes a square root”.
3) ‘teaching to the test’ by focusing on technique to get answers
without making sense can have long-term adverse consequences
as the fragile rules fall apart in more sophisticated
circumstances.
 -
This relationship suggest that must be the square root of two.
- Such an argument requires the learner to be comfortable making
deductions from symbolism that may no longer have its original
meaning.
- The learner’s long term journey throughout arithmetic and
algebra involves a succession of such transitions that challenge
and empower the confident students while alienating those who
are in difficulty.
 2.16 Trigonometry
Begins with definitions of
sine, cosine and tangent
Michelle Challenger in
as ratios of sides in a
(Challenger 2009) found
right-angled triangle ABC
a huge change in
meaning from triangle
trigonometry and circle
trigonometry
‘Analytic Geometry’
include the use of infinite
power series and complex
numbers that go far beyond
the experience of students
beginning their studies of
triangle and circle
trigonometry.
To reach the level of analytic
trigonometry, a learner must
pass through a minefield of
problematic met before :
•
From the arithmetic of unsigned
numbers to the arithmetic of sign
numbers
• From the Euclidean geometry of the
triangle to circle trigonometry.
• Analytic trigonometry involving
infinites series and unsetting ideas
of complex numbers.

3.0 Supportive and Problematic Conceptions

1) Sfard (1991), Anna Sfard’s
idea of conceptions: the
interpretation that an individual
has a concept.
2) Different individual had some
supportive aspects and
problematic aspect.
Example :
a) Students with first class degree very confident
about mathematics, had problematic aspect that
they suppressed to focus on supportive aspects
that worked and enabled them to solve problems.
b) Other individuals have conception that includes
supportive aspect yet their overall feeling is one of
the lack of understanding because of dominant
problematic aspect.
The proof using complex numbers to give the
trigonometric identities for :
• Cannot be used to teach the identity in triangle and
circle trigonometry.
• Offer incredible insight to those who can make sense
of the more advanced idea required.
• Relating dynamic visual ideas of the charging slope
pf the graph of the trigonometric functions to the
symbolic use of trigonometric formulae.
 3.1 Met Befores Affect Us All
 Focus mainly on supportive met-before that are intended to form a basis for future development
 The many problematic aspect arise when learners encounter new situations
 Required the building towards powerful ideas that will be encountered in the future and address
problematic issues in the present that may have long-term consequences.
 There need to be a balance between the supportive aspect (encourage generalization) and problematic
aspect (impede progress)
 Idea that are supportive at one stage may become problematic in another. This applies not only to
students, but also to experts, who may develop a particular view that prevents them from grasping new
avenues of progress.

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