1.

Identify your null and alternative

hypothesis
2. Set the level of significance or alpha level
3. Collect your data
4. Compute the sample statistic
5. Make a decision about rejecting or failing
to reject
 The null hypothesis is typically stated using
the language of “no difference” (or “no
relationship” or “no association”)
 Example of a null hypothesis
“There is no significant difference between
smokers and non smokers on depression
scores”
 The non directional hypothesis indicates a
difference but doesn’t have direction or
 Example of alternative hypothesis
(nondirectional)
“There is a significant difference between
smokers and non smokers on depression
scores”
 For directional hypothesis, the direction of
difference may be positive or negative based
from past studies of the topic
 Example of alternative hypothesis
(directional)
“Smokers are more depressed than non
smokers”
 If there is “no difference” as called for in the
hypothesis, how you will determine this
difference?
 Setting a significance level or alpha level
 Significance level - a probability level that
reflects the maximum risk you are willing to
take that any observed differences are due
to chance
 It is typically set at 0.01 (1 out 100 times the
sample score will be due to chance) or 0.05
(5 out of 100 time due to chance)
 Determine the sample size? How large is
large enough?
 Administer the instrument
 Determine how to insert the data in SPSS
 Code and tabulate
 Several questions need to be answered to
arrive at appropriate statistic:-
 Do you plan to compare groups or relate
variables in your hypothesis or research
question?
 How many independent variables you have
in one research question or hypothesis?
 How many dependent variables do you have
in a research question or hypothesis?
 Will you statistically controlling the
covariates in your analysis of research
question?
 How will your dependent variable or
variables be measured?
 Are the scores on your variables normally
distributed; that is, could you assume a
normal curve if the scores were plotted on a
graph?
 T-test (independent samples)
 Analysis of variance
 Analysis of covariance
 Multiple analysis of variance
 Multiple analysis of covariance
 Chi-Square
 Pearson product moment correlation
 Multiple regression
 Spearman rank-order correlation
 Point biserial correlation
 Phi coefficient
 Types of hypothesis/ question: Group
comparison
 Number of independent variables: 1
 Number of dependent variables: 1
 Number of covariates: 0
 Type of data for independent variable:
Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable:
Continuous
 Types of hypothesis/ question: Group comparison
 Number of independent variables: 1
 Number of dependent variables: 1
 Number of covariates: 0
 Type of data for independent variable: Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable: Continuous
 Types of hypothesis/ question: Group comparison
 Number of independent variables: 1 or more
 Number of dependent variables: 1
 Number of covariates: 1
 Type of data for independent variable: Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable: Continuous
 Types of hypothesis/ question: Group comparison
 Number of independent variables: 1 or more
 Number of dependent variables: 2 or more
 Number of covariates: 0
 Type of data for independent variable: Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable: Continous
 Types of hypothesis/ question: Group comparison
 Number of independent variables: 1 or more
 Number of dependent variables: 2 or more
 Number of covariates: 1 or more
 Type of data for independent variable: Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable: Continuous
 Types of hypothesis/ question: Relate variables
 Number of variables: 2
 Number of covariates: 0
 Type of data for variables: One variable is
continuous and another variable is continuous
 Types of hypothesis/ question: Relate variables in
form of prediction
 Number of independent variables: 2 or more
 Number of dependent variables: 1
 Number of covariates: 0
 Type of data for independent variable: Continuous
 Type of data for dependent variable: Continuous
 Can you match/decide
 Research problem with
 Research objective with
 Research hypothesis with
 Research methodology with
 Numbers and characteristics of the sample
with
 Types of statistical analysis

EVERYTHING SHOULD BE ALIGNED!

 Aim of the research: Compare the attitude towards
learning between boy and girl
 Research question:
Is there any significant difference between boys
and girls on attitude towards learning?
 The null hypothesis:
There is no significant difference between boys and
girls on attitude towards learning
 The alternative hypothesis:
There is a significant difference between boys and
girls on attitude towards learning
 Independent variable: 1(Gender)
 Dependent variable: 1(Attitude towards
learning)
 Type of data for independent variable:
Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable:
Continuous
 Statistical test: ?
 Can you match/decide
 Research problem with
 Research objective with
 Research hypothesis with
 Research methodology with
 Numbers and characteristics of the sample
with
 Types of statistical analysis

EVERYTHING SHOULD BE ALIGNED!

 Aim of the research: Compare the leadership skills
between principals from Smart School, Boarding
School and Cluster School
 Research question:
Is there any significant difference between
principals from Smart School, Boarding School and
Cluster School on leadership skills?
 The null hypothesis:
There is no significant difference between principal
between principals from Smart School, Boarding
School and Cluster School on leadership skills
 The alternative hypothesis:
There is a significant difference between principals
from Smart School, Boarding School and Cluster
School on leadership skills
 Independent variable: 1(Type of school
where the principal works)
 Dependent variable: 1 (Leadership skills)
 Type of data for independent variable:
Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable:
Continuous
 Statistical test: ?
 Can you match/decide
 Research problem with
 Research objective with
 Research hypothesis with
 Research methodology with
 Numbers and characteristics of the sample
with
 Types of statistical analysis

EVERYTHING SHOULD BE ALIGNED!

 Aim of the research: Compare the level of stress
between male and female teachers
 Research question:
Is there any significant difference between male
and female teachers on stress?
 The null hypothesis:
There is no significant difference between male and
female teachers on stress
 The alternative hypothesis:
There is a significant difference between male and
female teachers on stress
 Independent variable: 1(Gender)
 Dependent variable: 1(Stress)
 Type of data for independent variable:
Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable:
Continuous
 Statistical test: ?
 Aim of the research: To study whether creative
thinking skill or critical thinking skill is the best
predictor of academic achievement:
 Research question:
Which is the best predictor of academic
achievement: creative thinking skill or critical
thinking skill?
 The null hypothesis:
There is no significant contribution of all predictor
variables which are creative thinking skill and
critical thinking skill towards variation in students’
academic achievement
 The alternative hypothesis:
There is a significant contribution of all predictor
variables which are creative thinking skill and
critical thinking skill towards variation in students’
academic achievement
 Independent variable: 2 (Creative and
critical thinking skills)
 Dependent variable: 1(Academic
achievement)
 Type of data for independent variable:
Continuous
 Type of data for dependent variable:
Continuous
 Statistical test: ?
 Can you match/decide
 Research problem with
 Research objective with
 Research hypothesis with
 Research methodology with
 Numbers and characteristics of the sample
with
 Types of statistical analysis

EVERYTHING SHOULD BE ALIGNED!

 Aim of the research: Compare the academic
achievement between students who learn maths
using the computer courseware and students who
learn maths without using the computer courseware
 Research question:
Is there any significant difference between students
who learn maths using computer courseware and
students who learn maths without using the
computer courseware on mean scores of math post
test after the effect mean scores of math pre test
is controlled?
 The null hypothesis:
There is no significant difference between students
who learn maths using computer courseware and
students who learn maths without using the
computer courseware on mean scores of math post
test after the effect mean scores of math pre test
is controlled
 The alternative hypothesis:
There is a significant difference between students
who learn maths using computer courseware and
students who learn maths without using the
computer courseware on mean scores of math post
test after the effect mean scores of math pre test
is controlled
 Independent variable: 1 (Types of learning
method)
 Dependent variable: 1 (Mean scores of math
posttest)
 Covariate: Mean scores of math pretest
 Type of data for independent variable:
Categorical
 Type of data for dependent variable:
Continuous
 Statistical test: Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA)
 Can you match/decide
 Research problem with
 Research objective with
 Research hypothesis with
 Research methodology with
 Numbers and characteristics of the sample
with
 Types of statistical analysis

EVERYTHING SHOULD BE ALIGNED!

Need to be interpreted in terms of
 the purpose of the study,
 the original research hypothesis
 with respect to other studies that have been
conducted in the same area of research
 Discus whether the results support the
research hypothesis- why they do or do not?
 Are the results in agreement with other
findings?
 Why or why not? Speculate…
 The supported hypotheses are relatively
simple to deal with
 Unsupported hypotheses require some
explanation regarding possible reasons
 If your results are not in agreement with
other research findings- reasons?
 Reason- validity problems or new discovery?
 Making inference a population based on a
sample- inferential statistics
Example:-
Can the findings of a research involving 300
sample of secondary students be generalized
to all secondary students in Malaysia?
 The sample must be representative
Can the findings of a research involving 300
sample of secondary students be generalized
to all secondary students in Malaysia?
 Threat to statistical validity- lack of
randomized samples
 Sample size
 The significance level and selected and the
directionality of the significance test
 The effect size (degree of departure of from
the null hypothesis)
 If the sample is large enough
 How large is large enough?
 One of the ways to determine sample size is
by using Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table
 If the population is 200, the sample size is
132
 If the population is 500, the sample size is
217
 If the population is 100 000, the sample size
is 384
 If you want to study attitudes of science
among students in your district area, let say
the population 500, then the sample size is
about 217
 Increase the significance level- 0.05 to 0.1
 Use one tailed test
 The greater departure from the null
hypothesis, the greater the effect size
 Effect size (i) 0.2- small, (ii) 0.5- medium
and (iii) 0.80 is considered high
 At least 30 participants in each group are
needed in the study to achieve 0.5 effect
size with 0.05 significance level
Traditional method Cooperative method

At least 30 At least 30
participants participants