MICROMERITICS

Micromeritics
• Definition: It is the science and technology of
small particles.
• The unit of particle size used in the
micrometer (µm), micron (µ) and equal to 10-6
m.
• As particle size decreases , area increases 
• Micromeritics is the science and technology of small
particles.
• Knowledge and control of the size and the size range
of particles are of significant importance in pharmacy
because the size and surface area of a particle related
to the physical, chemical and pharmacologic
properties of a drug.

• The particle size of a drug can affect its release from

dosage forms that are administered orally,
parenterally, rectally and topically.
• In the area of tablet and capsule manufacture,
control of the particle size is essential in
achieving the necessary flow properties and
proper mixing of granules and powders.
 Micromeritics Applications
1. Release and dissolution.
2. Absorption and drug action.
3. Physical stability.
4. Dose uniformity.
 Release and dissolution
• Particle size and surface area influence the
release of a drug from a dosage form.

• Higher surface area allows intimate contact of

the drug with the dissolution fluids in vivo and
increases the drug solubility and dissolution.
 Absorption and drug action
• Particle size and surface area influence the
drug absorption and subsequently the
therapeutic action.

• Higher the dissolution, faster the absorption

and hence quicker and greater the drug action.
 Physical stability
• The particle size in a formulation influences
the physical stability of the suspensions and
emulsions.

• Smaller the size of the particle, better the

physical stability of the dosage form.
 Dose uniformity
• Good flow properties of granules and powders
are important in the manufacturing of tablets
and capsules.
 Particle Size and
Size
• Distribution
In a collection of particles of more than one size, two
properties are important, namely.

1. The shape and surface are of the individual particles.

2. The particle size and size distributions (The size

range and number or weight of particles).
 Particle Size
The size of a sphere is readily expressed in terms of its
diameter.
• The Surface diameter, d , is the diameter of a sphere
s

having the same surface area as that of the asymmetric the

•
particle.
• The Volume diameter, dv, is the diameter of a

sphere having the same volume as that of the asymmetric

• the particle.
The Projected diameter, dp, is the projected diameter of a
•
sphere having the same observed area as that of the
asymmetric the particle.
The Stokes diameter, dst, is the diameter which describes an
8
equivalent sphere undergoing sedimentation at the same rate
 Particle Size
• Any collection of particles is usually polydisperse. It
is therefore necessary to know not only the size of a
certain particle, but also how many particles of the
same size exist in the sample.
• Thus, we need an estimate of the size range present
and the number or weight fraction of each particle
size.
• This is the particle-size distribution and from it we
can calculate an average particle size for the sample.
 Particle Size Distribution
• When the number or weight of particles lying within
a certain size range is plotted against the size range or
mean particle size, a so-called frequency distribution
curve is obtained.

• This is important because it is possible to have two

samples with the same average diameter but different
distributions.
 Methods for determining
particle size
• Many methods available for determining particle size
such as optical microscopy, sieving, sedimentation
and particle volume measurement.

1. Optical microscopy (range: 0.2-100 µm).

2. Sieving (range: 50-1500 µm).
3. Sedimentation (range: 1-200 µm).
4. Particle volume measurement / conductivity method
(range: 0.5-500 µm).
 1. Optical Microscopy
• Particle size in the range of 0.2 – 100 µm can be measured.
• in this method the size is expressed as dp (projected
diameter), which describes the diameter of a sphere having
same area as the asymmetric particle when observed under
a microscope.
• This method gives number distribution which can be converted
to weight distribution Optical microscope lens has limited
resolving power
• Advanced microscopes have better resolving power and can
measure size in nano range: Ultramicroscope, Electron microscope-
Scanning Electron microscope (SEM), Transmission Electron
microscope (TEM).

• Application: Particle size analysis in suspensions, ae1r3osols,

globule size analysis in emulsion
 METHOD
• Eye-piece of the microscope is fitted with a micrometer.
• This eye-piece micrometer is calibrated using a standard stage
micrometer.
• Take the powder sample and prepare a suspension with a suitable
vehicle such as paraffin oil.
• When water is used as a vehicle, verify the aspects of hydration
(swelling) of the particles.
• The sample of suspension is mounted on a slide or a ruled cell and
placed it on the mechanical stage.
• The size of the particle is estimated with the help of the eye-piece
micrometer.
• Around 625 particles must be counted in order to estimate the true
mean.
The size frequency distribution curves such as normal (Figure 6-3), log-
normal (Figure 6-4), cumulative frequency (Figure 6-5) and prob ability
(Figure 6-6) curves are plotted. Finally, the statistical diameters for the
powder are estimated.
• Estimation of diameter can be improved by projecting the field
of the specimen on a screen, or by taking a photograph.
• Electronic scanners have been developed to remove the
necessity of measuring particles by visual observation.
16
23
24
 Advantages
 One can view particles
 Any aggregates detected

 Contamination of particles detected

 Use of cover slip for arresting motion of
particles
 Easy and simple
Disadvantages
 Length and breadth can be detected but depth
or thickness of particles cannot be measured
 Slow- time consuming , tedious, inaccurate
 Number of particles to be measured is more
 Sieving method
• Particles having size range between 50 and 1500µm are estimated by

sieving method.

• In this method, the size is expressed as d sieve, which describes the

diameter of a sphere that passes through the sieve aperture as the

asymmetric particle.

• This method directly gives weight distribution. It find application in

dosage form development of tablets and capsules.

• It find application in dosage form development of
tablets and capsules.
• Normally, 15% of fine powder should be present in
granulated material to get proper flow of material and
achieve good compaction.
• Thus percent of coarse, moderate, fine powder is
estimated by this method.
• Sieves for pharmaceutical testing are constructed from
wire cloth with square meshes, made of brass, bronze or
stainless steel with known aperture (hole) diameters
which form a physical barrier to particles.
• Sieves should not be coated or plated.
• There must be no reaction between the material of the
sieve and the substance sieved.
• The standard sieve sizes are as per the
pharmacopoeia.
Method
• Sieves are arranged in a nest with the coarsest at the top.
• A sample of (50g) of the powder is placed on the top sieve and
then it is subjected to mechanical vibration for specified time, eg
20 minutes.
• The powder retained on each sieve is weighed.

• The particles are considered to be retained on the sieve mesh with

an aperture corresponding to the sieve diameter.
• Data are analyzed for normal, log-normal, cumulative percent
frequency distribution and probability curves.
•Care should be taken to get reproducible results.

• The type of motion, time of operation, speed, weight of

powder should be fixed and standardized.
Advantages
•Inexpensive
•Simple
• Rapid
• Reproducible results
Disadvantages
• lower limit is 50 microns
• Powder if moist, can cause clogging of apertures
• Attrition between particles during the process may
ca2u8 se size reduction giving inaccurate results.
32
 Sedimentation Method
• Sedimentation method may be used over a size range of 1-200 µm
• In this method size is expressed as Stokes' diameter, which
describes the diameter of an equivalent sphere having the same
rate of sedimentation as that of the asymmetric particle.
• Sedimentation of particles may be evaluated by different methods.
Some of these are Andreasen pipette method, balance method and
hydrometer method.
• Sedimentation method finds applications in:
(a) formulation and evaluation of suspension
(b) formulation and evaluation of emulsions
(c) determination of molecular weight of polymers
Principle:
The rate of settling of particles in a suspension or emulsion may be
obtained by Stoke’s law. The equation is rearranged to get Stoke’s
diameter, dst , of particles.

h= distance of fall in time, t

η0 =viscosity of the medium
ρs =density of the particles
ρo =density of the dispersion medium
g = acceleration due to gravity
 Practical considerations

1) The suspension should be dilute (about 1 to 2 percent).

For the estimation, powder is dispersed in a medium to get a suspension.
Sometimes, particles form aggregates or get clumped together and fall
faster due to its weight. This leads to errors. A proper deflocculating
agent has to be added to keep particles free and separated, so that each
particle sediments individually. Therefore, a dilute suspension is
preferred.
2. Flow should be laminar, i.e., rate of sedimentation of particles must
not be too hard to create turbulence. And turbulent flow will affect the
sedimentation of other particles thereby causing estimation. The type of
flow, (whether turbulent or laminar), is indicated by the dimensionless
Reynolds number, Re, which is defined as
• If Reynolds number is greater than 0.2, the flow is turbulent.
Sedimentation method predicts the exact particle size, if the Reynolds
number does not exceed 0.2. Thus, the validity of the data can be
verified. Combining equations 1&2

• equation 3 allows the calculation of maximum particle diameter,

whose sedimentation will be governed by Stokes' law, when Re does
not exceed 0.2.
• Large, dense particles settle quite fast. In such cases, it may be
necessary to increase either the density or the viscosity of the
suspending fluid in order to maintain streamline flow.
 Method
• It usually consists of a 550 ml cylindrical vessel containing a 10 ml
pipette sealed to a ground glass stopper. When the pipette is placed in
the cylinder, its lower tip is 20 cm below the surface of the suspension
The procedure is as follows:
• Prepare 1 or 2% suspension of the powder in a suitable
medium. A deflocculating agent will help in uniform
dispersion of the suspension.
• Transfer the suspension into the Andreasen vessel. Place the
stopper and shake the vessel to distribute the suspension
uniformly. Remove the stopper and place the two-way pipette
and securely suspend the vessel in a constant temperature
water bath.
• At different time intervals, 10 ml samples are withdrawn using
two way stopcock and collected in a watch-glass. Samples are
evaporated and weighed. The weight or the amount of
particles obtained in each time interval is referred to as weight
undersize. The weights are converted into cumulative weight
undersize.
 Conductivity Method
• Particle size ranging from 0.5 to 500 µm is measured by
conductivity method.
• This method gives number distribution.
• Particle volume is measured and converted into particle diameter.
• Coulter counter is used to measure the particle volume.
• In this method, size is expressed as volume diameter, dv ,which
describes the diameter of the sphere having the same volume as
that of the asymmetric particle
• This is a quick and accurate method, but the instrument is
expensive,
• This method finds applications in the study of
(a) particle growth in suspensions and solutions,
(b) dissolution of drugs in a desired medium,
(c) effect of antibacterial agents on the growth of micro organisms.
• Principle : Working principle of the Coulter counter may be
explained with the help of Figure
• Particles are suspended in conducting electrolyte (say sodium
chloride). This dispersion is filled in the sample cell, that has an
orifice and maintains contact with the external medium.
• Electrodes are placed in the solution (inside the cell) and suspension
(outside).
• A constant voltage is applied across the two electrodes. In this
position current passes.
• When a suspended particle travels through the orifice, it displaces its
own volume of electrolyte into the beaker.
• The net result is a change in electrical resistance.
• This change in electric resistance is termed as voltage pulse, which is
related to the particle volume.
• This voltage pulse is amplified and fed to a pulse height analyzer.
• This analyzer is previously calibrated in terms of particle size for
different threshold settings. 
• For a given threshold value, the pulses are electronically counted.
• By changing the threshold settings gradually, number of particles of
each size range is obtained. Thus the particle size distribution can be
obtained.
• Conductivity method is also known as stream scanning, i.e., a fluid
suspension of particles passes through a sensing zone, in which
individual particles are electronically sized, counted and tabulated.
Advantages
• Using Coulter counter apparatus, approximately 4000 particles per
second can be counted. Therefore size distribution analysis can be
completed in a relatively short period of time.
• It gives reasonably accurate results. 
Disadvantages
• Coulter-counter method may be unsuitable for polar- and highly
water- soluble materials due to solvation. In such cases, if a non
solvent is used to suspend the particles, it may not produce adequate
conductance.
• Expensive
 Specific surface Area

•• Specific
  surface: is defined as the surface area per unit weight(sw) or
unit volume (Sv) of the material.

• Sv
=

• Sw
= =
 Methods
•  
ADSORPTION METHOD
• Particles with a large surface area are good adsorbents for the
adsorption of gases and solutes from solution.
• In determining the surface of the adsorbent, the volume in cubic
centimeters of gas adsorbed per gram of adsorbent may be plotted
against the pressure of the gas at constant temperature.
• The adsorbed layer is monomolecular at low pressure and become
multimolecular at higher pressure.
• The volume of nitrogen gas Vm in cm3 that 1g powder can adsorb
when the monolayer is complete can be accurately given by BET
equation
= +
• Instrument used is Quantasorb.
• Absorption and desorption of nitrogen gas on the powder sample is
measured with a thermal conductivity detector.
• When a mixture of helium and nitrogen is passed through a cell
containing powder.
• Nitrogen is the absorbate and helium is inert and not adsorbed on the
powder surface.
• A bell shaped curve is plotted and the signal height is proportional to
the rate of adsorption or desorption of nitrogen and the area under
curve being proportional to the gas adsorbed on the particles.
• Quantasorb’s versatility allows the use of a number of individual
gases or mixture of gases as adsorbates over a range of temperature.
 Air Permeability Method
• Instrumentation is simple and determination is quick.
• This method also used to estimate surface diameter, ds .
• This method is useful in controlling batch to batch variation in
production of powders. 
Principle :
• Powder is packed in the sample holder as a compact plug.
• In this packing, surface-surface contacts between particles appear as a
series of capillaries.
• The surface of these capillaries is a function of the surface area of the
powder.
• When air is allowed to pass through the powder bed at a constant
pressure, the bed resists the flow of air.
• This results in a pressure drop.
• The greater the surface area per gram of the powder, Sw the greater the
resistance to flow.
• The permeability of air for a given pressure drop is inversely
proportional to specific surface.

• The Kozeny-Carman equation is used to estimate the surface area by

this method
Method
• Fisher subsieve sizer instrument is commercially available.
• It consists of a sample tube containing the packed powder sample with
one end connected to an air pump through a constant pressure
regulator.
• The other end is attached to a calibrated manometer containing a
suitable liquid of low viscosity and negligible vapor pressure.
• The air pump builds up air pressure and is connected to a constant
pressure regulator.
• Air is passed through the dryer to remove any moisture.
• Air is then allowed to flow through the packed powder in the sample
tube.
• The flow of air is measured by the manometer.
• The level of the fluid in the manometer indicates the average

diameter of the particles.

• The porosity of the powder (ε) and viscosity of air (n) are

estimated separately.

• A and l are constants represent sample holder.

• ΔP and V can be obtained from the experiment and substituted

in equation in order to estimate the surface area.

 POWDER DISTRIBUTION CURVE ANALYSIS OF
DATA
• powder samples may have the same mean size, but may be different in the
distribution of sizes above and below the mean.
• Such differences can be seen readily, if results are presented in the form of
frequency curves.
Normal Frequency Distribution Curve
• In this type, number or weight of particles lying within a particular size
range is plotted against the mean particle size.
• In general, the normal distribution curve is symmetrical (bell shaped)
around the mean, which is also the mode
• . In this type of distribution, the positive and negative deviations from the
mean are uniform.
• Normal distribution is usually not found in pharmaceutical powders
because of uneven size reduction processes. The distribution of particles in
a powder is termed as non symmetric or skewed, i.e., uneven around the
mean
• . It normally shows a long tail of larger particle size.
 Log-Normal Distribution Curve 

• In this type, frequency on y axis, is plotted against log mean

particle size on x axis
• Advantage of this curve is that the distribution pattern is made
symmetrical, when compared to normal distribution curve.
• Powders obtained by crystallization and milling methods
exhibit log-normal distribution.
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

•  In this plot, cumulative percentage oversize (or undersize) is drawn

against particle size.
• Data yield a sigmoid curve with the mode, i.e., particle size at the
greatest slope.
• The advantage of this plot is that one can directly read the
percentage within any given size range without any difficulty.
• The disadvantage is that scattering of points cannot be identified.
 Log-Probability Plot

• A plot is drawn by taking log particle size on x axis and cumulative

percent frequency of the probability scale on y axis.
• In this plot, the cumulative curve is converted into a straight line.
• A straight line is completely defined by one point and the slope.
• For the number distribution, slope gives geometric standard
deviation σg
 DERIVED PROPERTIES OF POWDERS

Size distribution and surface areas of powders are the two

fundamental properties of any collection of particles.
• In addition to these numerous derived properties that are based
upon these fundamental properties.
• Derived properties of powder
1. Density of powders
(a) bulk density
(b)tapped density
(c) granular density
(d)true density
2. Flow properties of powders
3. Porosity
4. Bulkiness
5 Packing arrangements
 Porosity
• Suppose a powder, such as zinc oxide, is placed in a graduated
cylinder and the total volume is noted.

• The volume occupied is known as the bulk volume V b .

• If the powder is non porous, i.e., has no internal pores or capillary

spaces, the bulk volume of the powder consists of the true volume of
the solid particles plus the volume of the space between the particles.
• The volume of the spaces, known as the void volume, is given by the
equation

ν = vb-vp
in which Vp, is the true volume of the particles.
•• The
  porosity or tides e of the powder is defined as the ratio
of the void volume to the bulk volume of the packing.

ε= = 1-
• Porosity is frequently expressed in percent.
Applications of porosity
• Higher the porosity, faster the rate of dissolution.
• Porosity is applied in the studies on the adsorption and
diffusion of drug materials.
 Packing Arrangements
• Powder beds of uniform sized spheres can assume either one of two
ideal packing arrangements:
(a) Closest or rhombohedral, and

(b) most open, loosest, or cubic packing.

• The theoretical porosity of a powder consisting of uniform spheres in

closest packing is 26% and for loosest packing is 48%.
• The particles in real powders are neither spherical in shape not
uniform in size.
• It is to be expected that the particles of ordinary powders may have
any arrangement intermediate  between the two ideal packing.
• And most powders in practice have porosities between 30 and 50%.
• if the particles are of greatly different sizes, however, the smaller
may sift between the larger to give porosities below the theoretic
minimum of 26%.
• In powders containing flocculates or aggregates, the porosity may be
above the theoretic maximum of 15%
• In real powder systems, then, almost any degree of porosity is
possible.
 Densities of Particles
• Density is universally defined as weight per unit volume.
• The difficulty arises when one attempts to determine the
volume of particles containing microscopic cracks, internal
pores, and capillary spaces.
• For convenience, three types of densities may be defined as
• (a) True density of the material itself, exclusive of the voids
and intra particle pores larger than molecular or atomic
dimensions in the crystal lattices.
• (b) Granule density is determined by the displacement of
mercury, which does not penetrate at ordinary pressures into
pores smaller than about 10 µm.
• (c) Bulk density as determined from the bulk volume and the
weight of a dry powder in a graduated cylinder.
• When a solid is nonporous, true and granule density are identical, and
both can be obtained by the displacement of helium or a liquid such as
mercury, benzene, or water.
• When the material is porous, having an internal surface, the true density
is best approximated by the displacement of helium, which penetrates
into the smallest pores and is not adsorbed by the material.
• The density obtained by liquid displacement is considered as
approximately equal to true density but may differ from it somewhat
when the liquid does not penetrate well into the pores. 
• True density ρ is the density of the actual solid material. Methods for
determining the density of nonporous solids by displacement in
liquids
• The true density may be determined by use of a helium densitometer
as suggested by Franklin.
• The volume of the empty apparatus (dead space) is first determined
by introducing a known quantity of helium.
• A weighed amount of powder is then introduced into the sample tube,
adsorbed gases are removed from the powder by an out-gassıng
procedure.
• And helium, which is net adsorbed by the material, is again
introduced
• The pressure is read on a mercury manometer and by application
of the gas laws, the volume of helium surrounding the particles
and penetrating into the Small cracks and pores is calculated.
• The difference between the volume of helium filling the empty
apparatus and the volume of helium in the presence of the
powder sample yields the volume occupied by the powder.
• Knowing the weight of the powder, one is then able to calculate
the true density.
 Granule density(ρg)
• It may be determined by a method similar to the liquid
displacement method.
• Mercury is employed since it fits the void spaces but fails to
penetrate into the internal pores of the particles.
• The volume of the particles together with their intra particle
spaces then gives the granule volume.
• From a knowledge of the powder weight the Granule density is
obtained.
 Bulk density

• Bulk density is defined as the mass of a powder (weight) divided by

the bulk volume.
• The bulk density denotes the total density of the material as it exists.
• Bulk volume includes true volume, volume of inter particle spaces
and intraparticle pores.
• When particles are packed, it is possible that a large amount of gaps
may be present between the particles.
• Therefore tapping of powder allows the particles to shift and remove
the voids to the minimum volume.
• The volume occupied by the powder in this condition represents the
bulk volume.
• Substituting this volume in the following equation gives the bulk
density
•• Bulk
  density, b
 
Applications:
• To check the uniformity of bulk chemicals
• To select proper size of containers, mixing apparatus for the
production
• To determine the proper size of the packing material
• To choose the size of empty gelatine capsules for filling of
medicament
 Procedure

3 tap method and 500 tap method: 

 

• A sample of about 50cm3 of powder, which has previously

been passed through a standard sieve No.20, and carefully
introduce into a 100 ml graduated cylinder.
• The cylinder is dropped onto a hard wood surface 3 times
from a height of 1inch at 2 second intervals.
• The bulk density is then obtained by dividing the weight of
sample in grams by the final volume in cm3 of the sample
contained in the cylinder.
500 tap method
• The same procedure is repeated, here the cylinder has been
dropped or tapped 500 times. It has been found that 3 tap
methods gives the most consistent results.
 Bulkiness
• It is the reciprocal of bulk density.
• It is an important consideration in the packing of powders.
• Bulkiness increases with a decrease in particle size.
• In a mixture of materials of different sizes, the smaller particles sift
between the larger one and tend to reduce the bulkiness.
 Flow properties
• Irregular flow of powder from the hopper produces tablets with non-
uniform weights.
• As a result, content uniformity and dose precision cannot be achieved
in the On commercial scale, flow properties can be improved by the
following methods.

(a) Processing of powder into granules of spherical shape, because

the spherical granules just roll on (better flow).

(b) Choosing optimum size of the granules, may be around 400 to

800 µm.

(c) Incorporating optimum amount of fines, about 15% w/w.

(d) Incorporating optimum concentration of lubricants such as
magnesium stearate, talc etc.
A combination of the above measures enhances the flow
characteristics of granules and powders.
Angle of repose : The flow characteristics are measured by angle
of repose, Improper flow of powder is due to frictional forces
between theses. These frictional forces are quantified by angle of
repose.

• Angle of repose is defined as the maximum angle possible

between the surface of a pile of the powder and the
horizontal plane
• The angle of repose (ϴ) can be determined by using the equation
tan ϴ = h/r or ϴ =Tan-1 h/r
where, h = height of pile in cm,
r =radius of the base of the pile, in cm 
• During the flow through the hopper, the granules exhibit internal flow
and demixing ie, tendency of power to separate in to layers of
different sizes.
• Flow of granules is hindered on account of frictional forces.
Therefore, the tangent of the angles of repose is expressed as the
coefficient of friction
• Value of ϴ are rarely less than 20°, and value of up to 40° indicate
reasonable flow potential. Above 50°, the powder flows with great
difficulty.
• In general, the angle of repose increased with decreasing particles
size. The addition of glidents in low concentration decreased the angle
of repose, but in higher concentration, it increase the angle.
 
Angle of repose Flow
<25 Excellent
25-30 good
30-40 passable
>45 Very poor
 Procedure : (Funnel Method)

 
• A funnel is fixed at a particular height ‘h’ cm on a burette stand.
• A white paper is placed below the funnel.
• The given powdered drug or granule whose angle of repose is to be
determined is passed slowly through the funnel, until it forms a pile.
• Care is taken to see that the drug particles slip and roll over each
other through the side of the funnel.
• Further addition of drug or granule is stopped as soon as the drug or
granule pile touches the tip of the funnel.
• Circumference of the pile of drug is drawn with a pencil without
disturbing the pile. The radius of the pile is noted down as ‘r’ cm.
Angle of repose is then calculated by using the formula
 COMPRESSIBILITY INDEX

• Compressibility index is also known as Carr’s consolidation index.

• It is important in maintaining uniform tablet weight.
• It is indirectly related to the relative flow rate cohesiveness and
particle size.
• It is simple, fast and popular method of predicting powder flow
characteristics.
• Poured/Fluff density-
Ratio of mass of powder to the fluff volume. Fluff volume is the volume
occupied by a certain mass, when gently poured into a measuring
cylinder.
• Tapped density-
Ratio of mass of powder to the tapped volume. Tapped volume is the
volume occupied by the same mass of powder after a standard tapping.
• Carr’s index is an indication of powder flow
 
PROCEDURE
 
Approximately 50ml of powder sample is gently poured into a
graduated cylinder. The initial volume and the weight of powder
is recorded. Determine the tapped density (200) times same as in
bulk density experiment.
Compressibility index = Tapped density - Poured density
Tapped density
Lower compressibility index value indicates better flow.
Carr’s index Type of flow
 
5-15 Excellent
 
12-16 Good
 
18-21 Fair to passable
 
25-35 Poor
 
33-38 Very poor
 
>40 Extremely poor
 
• Flow properties depend on particle size, shape, porosity and density of
the bulk powder.
Particle size
• If the particle size is small (10 µm), the powder flow is restricted
owing to cohesion of particles by van der Waals, electro static and
surface tension forces.
• These forces act against gravitational force. As the particle size
increases, the flow of powders increases, i.e. free flowing. This is due
to the influence of gravitational force on the diameter. The rate of
flow is directly proportional to the diameter raised to the 3 rd power.
Beyond a particular point, flow properties decrease as the particle size
increases.
• An appropriate blend of coarse and fine particles improves the flow
properties. The fines get adsorbed on the surface of larger particles
and reduce the frictional forces.
Nature of particles
• Smooth surface of particles improves the flow.
• Surface roughness leads to poor flow due to friction and cohesiveness.
Flat and elongated particles tend to pack loosely and give high porosity.
• Particles having high density and low internal porosity tend to possess
good flow properties.
• Generation of electrical charge by friction between two particles during
the movement also leads to cohesion.

Moisture content
• The higher the moisture content, the greater the risk of cohesion and
adhesion.