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Economics
PRINCIPLES OF
N. Gregory Mankiw
2
Welfare Economics
Recall, the allocation of resources refers to:
how much of each good is produced
which producers produce it
which consumers consume it
Welfare economics studies how the allocation
of resources affects economic well-being.
First, we look at the well-being of consumers.
Suppose P = $260.
name WTP
Flea’s CS = $300 – 260 = $40.
Antonio $250
The others get no CS because
Chad 175
they do not buy an iPod at this
Flea 300 price.
Juan 125 Total CS = $40.
Recall: area of 50
h
a triangle equals 40
½ x base x height
30
Height =
20
$60 – 30 = $30.
10
So, D
CS = ½ x 15 x $30 0 Q
= $225. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 15
How a Higher Price Reduces CS
If P rises to $40,
P
CS = ½ x 10 x $20 1. Fall in CS
60
= $100. due to buyers
50 leaving market
Two reasons for the
fall in CS. 40
30
2. Fall in CS due to 20
remaining buyers 10
D
paying higher P 0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 16
ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Consumer surplus demand curve
P 50
A. Find marginal $ 45
buyer’s WTP at 40
Q = 10.
35
B. Find CS for 30
P = $30.
25
Suppose P falls to $20.
20
How much will CS
increase due to… 15
10
C. buyers entering
the market 5
D. existing buyers 0
paying lower price 0 5 10 15 20 Q
25
17
ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Answers P
demand curve
50
A. At Q = 10, marginal $ 45
buyer’s WTP is $30. 40
B. CS = ½ x 10 x $10 35
= $50 30
P falls to $20. 25
20
C. CS for the
15
additional buyers
= ½ x 10 x $10 = $50 10
5
D. Increase in CS
0
on initial 10 units
= 10 x $10 = $100 0 5 10 15 20 Q
25
18
Cost and the Supply Curve
Cost is the value of everything a seller must give
up to produce a good (i.e., opportunity cost).
Includes cost of all resources used to produce
good, including value of the seller’s time.
Example: Costs of 3 sellers in the lawn-cutting
business.
name cost A seller will produce and sell
the good/service only if the
Jack $10 price exceeds his or her cost.
Janet 20
Hence, cost is a measure of
Chrissy 35 willingness to sell.
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 19
Cost and the Supply Curve
P Qs
Derive the supply schedule
from the cost data: $0 – 9 0
10 – 19 1
20 – 34 2
name cost
35 & up 3
Jack $10
Janet 20
Chrissy 35
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 20
Cost and the Supply Curve
P
$40 P Qs
$0 – 9 0
$30
10 – 19 1
$20
20 – 34 2
$10 35 & up 3
$0 Q
0 1 2 3
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 21
Cost and the Supply Curve
P
At each Q,
$40
Chrissy’s the height of
the S curve
$30 cost is the cost of the
Janet’s marginal seller,
$20 cost the seller who
would leave
$10 Jack’s cost the market if
the price were
$0 Q any lower.
0 1 2 3
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 22
Producer Surplus
P PS = P – cost
$40 Producer surplus (PS):
the amount a seller
$30 is paid for a good
minus the seller’s cost
$20
$10
$0 Q
0 1 2 3
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 23
Producer Surplus and the S Curve
P PS = P – cost
$40 Suppose P = $25.
Chrissy’s
Total
Total PS
PS equals
equals thethe
$0 Q area above the supply
area above the supply
0 1 2 3 curve
curve under
under the
the price,
price,
from
from 00 to
to Q.
Q.
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 24
PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
Price
per pair
Suppose P = $40. P The supply of shoes
At Q = 15(thousand), 60
the marginal seller’s S
50
cost is $30,
40
and her producer
surplus is $10. 30
1000s of pairs
20 of shoes
10
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 25
PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
PS is the area b/w The supply of shoes
P
P and the S curve,
from 0 to Q. 60
50 S
The height of this
triangle is 40
$40 – 15 = $25.
30
h
So, 20
PS = ½ x b x h
= ½ x 25 x $25 10
= $312.50 0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 26
How a Lower Price Reduces PS
If P falls to $30, P 1. Fall in PS
PS = ½ x 15 x $15 60 due to sellers
= $112.50 leaving market S
50
Two reasons for 40
the fall in PS.
30
2. Fall in PS due to 20
remaining sellers 10
getting lower P
0 Q
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 27
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Producer surplus 50 supply curve
P
A. Find marginal
45
seller’s cost
at Q = 10. 40
35
B. Find total PS for
P = $20. 30
25
Suppose P rises to $30.
20
Find the increase
in PS due to… 15
C. selling 5 10
additional units 5
D. getting a higher price 0
on the initial 10 units 0 5 10 15 20 Q
25
28
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Answers supply curve
P
50
A. At Q = 10, 45
marginal cost = $20
40
B. PS = ½ x 10 x $20 35
= $100
30
P rises to $30. 25
C. PS on 20
additional units 15
= ½ x 5 x $10 = $25 10
D. Increase in PS 5
on initial 10 units 0
= 10 x $10 = $100 0 5 10 15 20 Q
25
29
CS, PS, and Total Surplus
CS = (value to buyers) – (amount paid by buyers)
= buyers’ gains from participating in the market
Total surplus = CS + PS
= total gains from trade in a market
= (value to buyers) – (cost to sellers)
45
CHAPTER SUMMARY
46
CHAPTER SUMMARY