Chapter 5

Conducting a Failure Examination

 Basic Approach to Failure Analysis
First and foremost, the investigator should not approach the examination with
preconceived notions about the cause of failure.

For example, if a supervisor provides a sight diagnosis to a failure task as they are
assigned to a given engineer, objectivity may be lost. The common reactions may
be to prove or disprove the initial cursory reaction at the expense of other
hypotheses. Objectivity is lost before the job is even started.

The examination itself should be designed to test a broad range of conditions, yet
not be so exhaustive as to become impractical because of excessive expense or
time. Design of the investigation includes proper sequence of the selected tests.
For example, a wrong sequence can introduce artifacts or mask and even destroy
important evidence. Even a well-designed examination can fail of its purpose,
unless it is conducted carefully and systematically.
 Basic Approach to Failure Analysis
When the series of tests has produced data that pinpoint problems, the job is still
not finished. The investigator should, whenever possible, include in his report
specific recommendations aimed at eliminating the problems through alternate
designs, materials, processing, heat treating, or fabrication techniques. He should
review these recommendations with the designer, manufacturer, stress analyst, or
other specialist so that these changes produce the desired results and do not
cause other problems. Potential problems in similar components should be
investigated so that corrective action includes the prevention of similar failures
 Failure Analysis Procedures
The basic steps to be followed and the range of techniques available for failure
analysis are outlined subsequently. Those steps requiring additional detail are
expanded in subsequent sections.

The basic steps listed may not all pertain to each investigation, and the order of
performing these steps varies somewhat, depending on the nature of the
investigation.

1. Assemble background data, including (a) all information pertaining to the

failure; (b) the history of the part, that is, processing and service; and (c)
pertinent codes, specifications, and standards.
2. Perform visual examination of the failure area and adjacent areas to
determine, photograph, and/or schematically record: (a) origin of failure; (b)
presence of stress concentrators; (c) presence of temper colour or scale on
fracture faces; (d) orientation and magnitude of stresses; (e) failure mode and
mechanism; (f) direction of crack propagation and sequence of failure; (g)
presence of contributing imperfections; and (h) sizes and other physical data.
 Failure Analysis Procedures
The basic steps to be followed and the range of techniques available for failure
analysis are outlined subsequently. Those steps requiring additional detail are
expanded in subsequent sections.

The basic steps listed may not all pertain to each investigation, and the order of
performing these steps varies somewhat, depending on the nature of the
investigation.

3. Perform fractographic examination.

4. Perform chemical analyses and compare results with specification or
standards. Analyse any important surface corrosion products, deposits, or
coatings.
5. Determine mechanical properties and compare with specifications or
standards.
6. Perform macroscopic examination to evaluate homogeneity, integrity, and
quality.
7. Perform metallographic examination to evaluate microstructural features.
Determine the deformation direction of wrought products and its relationship
to the applied and residual stresses.
 Failure Analysis Procedures
The basic steps to be followed and the range of techniques available for failure
analysis are outlined subsequently. Those steps requiring additional detail are
expanded in subsequent sections.

The basic steps listed may not all pertain to each investigation, and the order of
performing these steps varies somewhat, depending on the nature of the
investigation.

8. Perform micro-hardness testing to measure case depths, evaluate cold

working, determine quality of weldments, and aid in identifying phases.
9. Perform high-magnification metallographic examination using the electron
microscope to study phases unresolvable with the light microscope.
10. Microprobe any critical abnormalities, such as inclusions and segregations,
that are too small for bulk analysis.
11. Use x-ray techniques to determine: (a) level of residual stress; and (b) the
relative amounts of phases, for example, austenite or retained austenite,
ferrite, delta ferrite or martensitic, sigma, and carbides in steels.