Pressure Measurement

Pressure units are a measure of force acting over unit

area.

It is most commonly expressed in pounds per square

inch (psi) or sometimes pounds per square foot (psf) in
English units; or Pascals (Pa) in metric units, which is the
force in Newtons per square meter (N/m2).
 Types of pressure
The different types of pressure differ only with respect
to their reference point.
1. Absolute pressure
The most definite reference point is absolute zero
pressure. This is the pressure of empty space in the
universe. When a pressure is based on this reference point,
it is called absolute pressure.
2. Atmospheric pressure
The most important pressure for life on earth is
atmospheric air pressure pamb (amb = ambiens,
surrounding).
 It is produced by the weight of the atmosphere
surrounding the earth up to an altitude of about 300 miles.
Atmospheric pressure decreases continuously up to this
altitude until it practically equals zero (full vacuum).
3. Differential pressure
The difference between two pressures P1 and P2 is referred
to as the pressure differenential ΔP = P1 - P2. The difference
between two independent pressures is called the
differential pressure.
 4. Gauge Pressure and Vacuum
The most common measurement of pressure is gauge
pressure (Pg) which is the pressure difference between the
measured pressure and ambient pressure.

Pg = pmeas. - pamb
The term pressure is used if the measured pressure is
higher than the atmospheric pressure. The term vacuum is
used if the measured pressure is below atmospheric
pressure.
mechanical type instruments,
Bellows
Bellows are formed from seamless tubes that are
hydraulically or mechanically roll-formed. They are
classified by the reference pressure used as absolute,
gauge, or differential pressure detectors, and can also be
grouped as force or motion balance types depending on
the instrument design.
Absolute Pressure Sensors
When absolute pressure is to be sensed with bellows
elements, it normally involves two bellows, one for
measuring and the other for reference.
Motion Balance

Figure illustrates the

beam balance version of
this design, an increase in
processpressure will
cause the measuring
bellows to extend, which
results in an increase of
readout through the
motion balance
mechanism.
 If the process pressure is constant but the barometric
pressure changes, force will be exerted equally on the
outside of both bellows, causing no change in the readout.

Force Balance The pressure being

sensed is applied to
the inside of the
bellows within the
capsule. The space
on the outside of the
bellows is evacuated,
thus providing a zero
absolute pressure
reference.
 The process pressure exerts a force on the capsule that
is applied to the lower end of the force bar. Due to the
force balance nature of the unit, the force bar is constantly
balanced; the sensing bellows do not move as long as the
pressure detected is within the range of the instrument.
Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tubes are known for its very high range of
differential pressure measurement in the range of almost
100,000 psi (700 MPa). It is an elastic type pressure
transducer.
The basic idea behind the device is that, crosssectional
tubing when deformed in any way will tend to regain its
circular form under the action of pressure. The
bourdon pressure gauges used today have a slight elliptical
cross-section and the tube is generally bent into a C-shape
or arc length of about 27 degrees. The detailed diagram of
the bourdon tube is shown figure.
 The pressure input is given to a socket which is soldered
to the tube at the base. The other end or free end of the
device is sealed by a tip. This tip is connected to a
segmental lever through an adjustable length link. The lever
length may also be adjustable. The segmental lever is
suitably pivoted and the spindle holds the pointer as shown
in the figure.
As the fluid pressure enters the bourdon tube, it tries to
be reformed and because of a free tip available, this action
causes the tip to travel in free space and the tube unwinds.
The simultaneous actions of bending and tension due to
the internal pressure make a non-linear movement of the
free tip. This travel is suitable guided and amplified for the
measurement of the internal pressure.
Spiral Bourdon Tube

Spiral Bourdon Tube is made by winding a partially

flattened metal tube into a spiral having several turns
instead of a single C-bend arc.
 The tip movement of the spiral equals the sum of the tip
movements of all its individual C-bend arcs. Therefore it
produces a greater tip movement with a C-bend bourdon
tube. The Spiral tube is suitable for pressure
ranges up to 28,000 kPa.
A spiraltype bourdon tube provides more tip
Movement. As the applied pressure increases, the spiral
uncoils. Because of the increased tip movement,
mechanical amplification is not normally needed. This
results in an increase in sensitivity and accuracy
Helical Bourdon Tube

Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It

allows the tip movement to be converted to a circular
motion.
 By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its axis
and connecting it to the tip, the tip movement become a
circular motion of the shaft. The Helical tube for ranges up
to 500,000 kPa.
Diaphragm gauge
 This type of gauge employs a metallic disc or
diaphragm instead of a bent tube. This disc or
diaphragm is used for actuating the indicating device.

When pressure is applied on the lower side of the

diaphragm it is deflected upward. This movement of the
diaphragm is transmitted to a rack and pinion. The latter is
attached to the spindle of needle moving on a graduated

dial. The dial can again be graduated in a suitable scale.

Advantages:
(i) Minimum hysteresis and no permanent zero shift.
(ii) Can withstand high overpressures.
(iii) Can maintain good linearity over a wide range.
(iv) Gauges are available for absolute and differential­
pressure measurements.
(v) Relatively small size and moderate cost.
Limitations:
(i) Difficult to repair.
(i) Needs protection from shock and vibration.
(iii) Cannot be used to measure high pressures .
Electromechanical type pressure measurement

Strain Gages
What Is Strain?

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied

force. More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change
in length, as shown in Figure
Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although
dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in./in.
or mm/mm.
Strain Gage

There are several methods of measuring strain, the

most common is with a strain gage, a device whose
electrical resistance varies in proportion to the
amount of strain in the device. There are two types
of strain gauges

(i) bounded type

(ii) unbounded type

Bounded strain gauge
The metallic strain gage consists of a very fine wire or, more
commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid
pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil
subject to strain in the parallel direction.

The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier,

which is attached directly to the test specimen. Therefore,
the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred
directly to the strain gage, which responds with a linear
change in electrical resistance.
Strain gages are available commercially with nominal
resistance values from 30 to 3,000 Ω, with 120, 350, and
1,000 Ω being the most common values.
A fundamental parameter of the strain gage is its sensitivity
to strain, expressed quantitatively as the gage factor (GF).
Gage factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in
electrical resistance to the fractional change in length
(strain)

The gage factor for metallic strain gages is typically around 2.

Unbonded Strain gauges
The arrangement of an unbonded strain gauges consists of the
following. Two frames P and Q carrying rigidly fixed insulated pins as
shown in diagram. these two frames can move relative with respect
to each other and they are held together by a spring loaded
mechanism. A fine wire resistance strain gauge is stretched around
the insulated pins.

When a force is applied on the structure under study (frames P & Q),
frames P moves relative to frame Q, and due to this strain gauge will
change in length and cross section. That is, the strain gauge is
strained. This strain changes the resistance of the strain gauge and
this change in resistance of the strain gauge is measured using a
wheat stone bridge. This change in resistance when calibrated
becomes a measure of the applied force and change in dimensions of
the structure under study. The range of this gauge is +/0.15% strain.
This gauge has a very high accuracy.
Advantages of strain gauges:

• Small & Compact in size.

• Electrical output signal.
• Rapid response to load variations.
• Relatively maintenance free, and if properly sealed can
be used in any environment.
• Inexpensive.
Disadvantages of strain gauges:

• They have to be protected from angular or non-axial

loads as they have no way to discriminate between
bending and axial loads.
• Overloads above rated loads should be avoided.
Strain Gage Measurement
Strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few
millistrain (e x 10-3). Therefore, to measure the strain requires
accurate measurement of very small changes in resistance.
The output voltage of the bridge, VO, is equal to:

From this equation, it is apparent that when R1/R2 = R4/R3,

the voltage output VO is zero. Under these conditions, the
bridge is said to be balanced. Any change in resistance in
any arm of the bridge results in a nonzero output voltage.
Therefore, if we replace R4 with an active strain gage, any
changes in the strain gage resistance will unbalance the
bridge and produce a nonzero output voltage.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

In this type, three coils are wound on a single tube, The centre coil
is connected to an A.C. Source, Voltage is induced in the two outside
coils. When the movable core is centured the induced voltages in
each of the outside coils are equal . Moving the core unbalances
these votages and the difference between them can be measured
Working Principle of LVDT

The working principle of the linear variable differential

transformer or LVDT working theory is mutual induction. When the
core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both the minor windings
flux will equal, so the induced e.m.f is similar in the windings. So for
no dislocation, the output value (eout) is zero because both the e1 &
e2 are equivalent.
 When the core of the LVDT is shifted to up to the null point. In
this case, the flux involving with minor winding S1 is additional as
contrasted to flux connecting with the S 2 winding. Due to this
reason, e1 will be added as that of e2. Due to this eout (output
voltage) is positive.
When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the null point, In
this case, the amount of e2 will be added as that of e1. Due to this
eout output voltage will be negative plus it illustrates the o/p to down
on the location point.
Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT
• The measurement of the displacement range of LVDT is very high,
and it ranges from 1.25 mm -250 mm.
• The LVDT output is very high, and it doesn’t require any extension.
It owns a high compassion which is normally about 40V/mm.
• When the core travels within a hollow former consequently there
is no failure of displacement input while frictional loss so it makes an
LVDT as a very precise device.
• LVDT demonstrates a small hysteresis and thus repetition is
exceptional in all situations
• The power consumption of the LVDT is very low which is about 1W
as evaluated by another type of transducers.
• LVDT changes the linear dislocation into an electrical voltage which
is simple to progress.
• LVDT is responsive to move away from magnetic fields, thus it
constantly needs a system to keep them from drift magnetic fields.
It is accomplished that LVDTs are more beneficial as contrasted than
any kind of inductive transducer.
• LVDT gets damaged by temperature as well as vibrations.
Capacitive-type Pressure Transducer

Capacitive pressure transducers consist of two conductive

plates and a dielectric.
 As the pressure increases, the plates move farther
apart. changing the capacitance. The fluid whose pressure
is being measured serves at the dielectric.
Moving contact type resistance transducer
As pressure changes, the bellows will either expand or
contract. This expansion and contraction causes the
attached slider to move along the slidewire, increasing or
decreasing the resistance, and thereby indicating an
increase or decrease in pressure.
Inductance-type Pressure Transducer
Inductance-type pressure transducers consist of the
following three parts:
1. A coil
2. A movable magnetic core.
3. The elastic deformation element. The element is
attached to the core.
 When the pressure varies, the element causes the core
to move within the coil. An alternating current is passed
through the coil, and as the core moves the inductance of
the coil changes. The current passing through the coil
increases as the inductance decreases.
For increased sensitivity, the coil can be separated into
two coils by utilizing a center tap, as shown in Figure. As
the core moves within the coils, the inductance of one coil
will increase, while the other will decrease.
Reluctance-type pressure transducer
 In this type of transducer, the electrical energy is
provided by the field of a permanent magnet.
For pressure measurement, the elastic deformation
element moves an armature closer to or fanher from the
permanent magnet. The change in inductance may be
calibrated in terms of movement of armature. The
reluctance of a coil wrapped around the permanent
magner varies wirh the movement.
Carbon Pile Pressure Transducers
It translates pressure change to resistance change. As
pressure change reduces the volume of the carbon pile the
resistance decreases.
Piezoelectic Pressure Transducers
 When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to a
quartz crystal, a charge is developed across the crystal that
is proportional to the force applied
When pressure is applied to a crystal, it is elastically
deformed. This deformation results in a flow of electric
charge (which lasts for a period of a few seconds). The
resulting electric signal can be measured as an indication
of the pressure which was applied to the crystal.
Photoelectric Pressure Transducers
 A photoelectric pressure transducer is shown in Fig. It
uses a photo-tube and a light source separated by a small
window, whose aperture is controlled by the force
summing member of the pressure transducers.
Resonant wire transducer
The natural frequency of a tensioned string increases
with tension. Mathematically, the relationship between
the resonant frequency of a string and the tension applied
on the string is given by:
Where,
F = Fundamental resonant frequency of string (Hertz)
L = String length (meters)
T = String tension (newtons)
μ = Unit mass of string (kilograms per meter).

This implies that a string can be used as a force sensor.

In this type of sensor design, an electronic oscillator
circuit, is used to keep a wire vibrating at its natural
frequency when under tension.
 The vibrating wire is located in a diaphragm. As the
pressure changes on the diaphragm so does the tension on
the wire, which affects the frequency that the wire vibrates
or resonates at. These frequency changes are a direct
consequence of pressure changes and as such are detected
and shown as pressure.
The frequency can be sensed as digital pulses from an
electromagnetic pickup or sensing coil. An electronic
transmitter would then convert this into an electrical signal
suitable for transmission. This type of pressure
measurement can be used for differential, absolute or
gauge installations.
 Low pressure measurement
In general , pressures below atmospheric may be called
low pressures or vacuums.
Very low pressure....... any pressure below 1 mm of
mercury (or torr)
Ultra low pressure....... less than a nanometer (10-3 m).

The two basic methods of measurement of low pressure

are :
I. Direct methods. Here, the displacement deflection
caused by the pressure is measured and is correlated to
the pressure. The following devices are included in this
category :
• Spiral Bourdon tubes.
• Flat and corrugated diaphragms.
• Capsules.
• Manometers.
2. Indirect or inferential methods. In these methods,
pressure is determined through the measurement of
certain other pressure-controlled properties, including
volume and thermal conductivity.
Devices included in this category are :
• Mcleod gauge.
• Thermal conductivity gauges.
• Ionization gauges .
• Radioactive vacuum meters.
Capsule pressure gauge
The sensing element of a capsule pressure gauge
consists of two corrugated diaphragms welded together at
their periphery to form a capsule. The pressure to be
measured is introduced into the capsule via an opening in
the centre of the first diaphragm. The centre of the second
diaphragm is connected to the transmission mechanism so
that the deflection of the measuring element can be
transmitted to the pointer.
When the pressure rises inside the capsule, both
diaphragms will slightly deform. By making use of two
diaphragms, the total deflection of the measuring element
is twice as large.
 For the measurement of very small pressure
differences, the deflection of a single capsule may be too
small. Therefore, multiple capsules can be stacked on top
of each other until sufficient displacement is obtained to
move the pointer across the full scale.
 Capsule pressure gauges are suitable for the
measurement of very low negative and positive pressures
ranging from 0 - 0.5 mbar to 0-1000 mbar with accuracy
classes of 0.1 to 2.5. They can measure both relative and
absolute as well as differential pressure.
Manometers
U-tube manometers consist of “U” shaped glass tubes
partially filled with a liquid. When there are equal
pressures on both sides, the liquid levels will correspond
to the zero point on a scale, as shown in Figure (a). The
scale is graduated in pressure units.
 When a higher pressure is applied to one side of the U-
tube, as shown in Figure (b), the liquid rises higher in the
lower pressure side, so that the difference in height of the
two columns of liquid compensates for the difference in
pressure. The pressure difference is given by:
PR − PL=  × difference in height of the liquid in the columns

where  is the specific weight of the liquid in the

manometer.

Inclined manometers were developed to measure low

pressures. The lowpressure arm is inclined, so that the
fluid has a longer distance to travel than in a vertical tube
for the same pressure change. This gives a magnified scale
as shown in Fig. (a).
 Well manometers are alternatives to inclined
manometers for measuring low pressures using low-density
liquids. In the well manometer, one leg has a much larger
diameter than the other leg, as shown in Fig. b.
When there is no pressure difference the liquid levels will
be at the same height for a zero reading. An increase in the
pressure in the larger leg will cause a larger change in the
height of the liquid in the smaller leg. The pressure across
the larger area of the well must be balanced by the same
volume of liquid rising in the smaller leg.
McLeod Gauge
The principle of working of all McLeod gauges (various
versions) is the compression of a sample of the low-
pressure gas to a pressure sufficiently high to read with a
simple manometer.
 The McLeod gauge consists of a system of glass tubings
in which a known volume of gas at unknown pressure is
trapped and then isothermally compressed by a rising
column. This amplifies the unknown pressure and allows its
measurement by conventional manometers. Fig . shows
the basic from of McLeod gauge. The process of
measurement involves the following steps:

The plunger is withdrawn [ fig. (a)] lowering the

mercury level below the opening thereby admitting the gas
at the unknown pressure p into the system. Let V be the
volume of the gas admitted into the measuring capillary,
bulb and into the tube down to the opening. The bulb and
the measuring capillary are then at the same pressure p
(vacuum source).
 The plunger is then pushed in and the mercury level
goes up, sealing off a gas sample of known volume V in the
bulb and measuring capillary. The unknown pressure (p) is
calculated using Boyle's law (assuming isothermal
compression) as follows :
pV = pcAch .............................. (1)
where,
Pc = Pressure of gas in measuring capillary tube, Pa
(pascal), and
Ac = Area of cross-section of measuring, capillary tube, m2.
Now pc = p + h m
h = Height of mercury column in reference capillary, m,
and
m= Density of mercury, kg/m3

Substituting for pc in eq(1)

pV = (p + h m ) Ach = p Ach+ h2 mAc
Or p(V- Ach) = h2 mAc
If Ach << V, then

If the pressure p and pc and can be considered in mm of

Hg instead of in Pa, the above equations can be modified
as
Hence the measuring
capillary tube can be
directly calibrated in
terms of pressure.
 Advantages:
(i) The unknown pressure is calculated in terms of the
physical dimensions of the gauge; this aspect makes the
gauge an absolute instrument suitable for calibrating other
low pressure gauges.
(ii) The gauge is not influenced by the composition of the
gas
Limitations:
(i) Lack of a continuous output reading.

(ii) Scale is of square law type; for a linear relation

between p and h the system needs modification so as
to keep the compression ratio constant for all
pressures.
Thermal Conductivity Gauges
A thermal conductivity gauge works on the following
"principle" :
The temperature of a given wire through which an electric
current is flowing depends on two factors:
(i) The magnitude of current, and
(ii) The rate at which heat is dissipated.
The current can be kept constant and the rate at which
heat is dissipated will depend on the conductivity of the
surrounding media. Further as the density of a given
medium is rduced i.e., pressure is lowered, its conductivity
will also reduce and the wire will become hotter for a given
current flow. Thus it is seen that the temperature of the wire
is directly dependent upon the pressure of the surrounding
medium.
The most commonly used conductivity gauges are:
1. Thermocouple gauge
2. Pirani gauge.
Thermocouple vacuum gauge
A thermocouple vacuum gauge operates on the
principle that at low pressure the thermal conductivity of a
gas is a function of pressure.
Basic elements of a thermocouple vacuum gauge is
shown in figure. It consists of a heater element (heated to
a temperature of 50°C to 400°C by a known constant
current) having a thermocouple in contact with its centre .
 The heater element and

The heater element and thermocouple are enclosed in a

glass or metal envelope which is sealed into the vacuum
system. The heater elements is supplied with a constant
Electric energy and its temperature is measured by a
thermocouple. The voltage measuring instrument can be
directly calibrated to read the pressure of the gas. The
thermocouple gauges of one type or another are available
to measure pressure in the range 10-4 to 1 torr.
Advantages:
1. Inexpensive and rugged construction.
2. No departure from linearity in the range 0.02 to 1 mm
of Hg.
3. Convenient and continuous reading.
4. Possibility of remote reading from the system
5. Possibility of process control with meter relay.
Disadvantages:
1. Required electric power.
2. Narrow reading range.
3. Need for individual and frequent calibration for
different gases.
Pirani vacuum gauge
In this gauge, the temperature of the wire is
determined by measuring the change The pirani gauge
employs a single filament (in the form of four coiled wires
of tungsten or platinum connected in parallel) enclosed in a
glass tube/chamber, whose pressure is to be measured
 As the surrounding pressure changes, the filament
temperature and hence its resistance also chan ges. A
compensating cell is also employed to minimise variation
caused by ambient temperature changes (its filament
material is same as that of the measuring cell).
 The resistance change of the filament in the measuring
cell is measured by the use of a resistance bridge which is
calibrated in terms of pressure. These gauges cover range
from about 10-5 to 1 torr.
Advantages :
(i) These gauges are rugged, inexpensive and usually
more accurate than thermocouple gauges.
(ii) The pressure reading range is wider.
(iii) Fast response to changes in pressure.
(iv) Possibility of process control and remote reading.
Disadvantages :
(i) Calibration is non-linear and varies from one gas to
another.
(ii) Require calibration against some pressure standards.
(iii) Poor transient response.
(iv) Operation requires electrical power.
Ionization Gauges
These gauges are used for measurement of pressures as
low as 0.000001 micron (one billionth of a mm of Hg); the
maximum pressure which an ionization gauge can measure
is about 1 micron.
 This gauge mainly consists of an envelope which is
evacuated by the pressure to be measured and contains a
heated filament, a positively biased grid ,and a negative
biased plate. The grid draws electrons from the heated
filament, and collision between them and gas molecules
causes ionization (Ionization is the process of knocking off
an electron from an atom and thus producing a free
electron and a positively charged ion) of the molecules. As
the plate is negatively charged, the positively charged ions
are attracted to the plate of the tube, causing current (I1)
flow in the external circuit; the electrons are collected by
the grid and a current (I2) is produced in the grid circuit.
The rate of ion production is proportional to the
number of electrons available to ionize the gas and the
amount of gas present. Thus, the ratio of+ ve ions, i.e.,
anode current I1 to electrons i.e., grid current I2 is a
measure of gas pressure.
 where S (the proportionality constant) is called the
sensitivity of the gauge and its value is determined by the
calibration of the particular gauge.
Advantages:
(i) Fast response to changes in pressure.
(ii) Possibility of process control and remote indication.
(iii) Constant sensitivity for a given gas over a wide range of
pressures.
(iv) Wide pressure range.
Disadvantages:
(i) Some gases get decomposed by hot filament.
(ii) The filament can burn out quickly if exposed to air
when hot or before the pressure is at low value.
(iii) High cost.
(iv) Complex electric circuitry.
(v) Calibration varies with gases.
Radioactive Vacuum Meters
A radioactive vacuum meter works on the principle that
the current flowing through an ionization chamber
depends upon the pressure, or more precisely upon the
density of the gas in the chamber. This type of meter
permits the measurement and recording of the absolute
pressure from 10 x 10-8 to 10 mm of mercury.
Related accessories
These mechanical components serve to protect the
pressure instruments from high or low temperatures,
plugging, corrosion, and pulsation, or to provide the means
for isolating the instrument for removal or maintenance.
PULSATION DAMPENERS AND SIPHONS
On steam service, it is desirable to prevent the live
steam from entering the sensing element, which could
cause temperature damage. Such prevention is
accomplished by installing a coil pipe siphon between the
gauge and the process connection
 Where sudden pressure shocks or rapidly fluctuating
pressures are expected, snubbers or pulsation dampers are
installed between the gauge and the process. Some of the
snubber design variations are illustrated in Figure .
One design consists of a fitting with a corrosion-
resistant porous metal filter disk. Such device delays the
equilibrium reading on the indicator by about 10 seconds.
Another snubber design depends for its dampening action
on a small piston in the inlet fitting; the piston rises and
falls with pressure impulses, absorbing shocks and surges.
Still another snubber design uses the adjustable restriction
created by a microvalve in the inlet fitting to damp
pulsations. Where system dynamics are important to the
measurement and/or to system safety.
Variations on snubber designs.
FREEZE PROTECTION
Where there is a possibility that the process fluid might
freeze inside the pressure element, steam tracing can be
provided or small electric heaters can be installed inside
the cases of larger instruments. A heater can provide a
temperature rise of about 80 °F (27 °C) and is available
with gauges having dial diameters of 4.5 in. (112 mm) or
larger.
For smaller instruments, resistancewire type heat
tracing can be wrapped around the transmitter. When this
is done, a thermostat should be included to prevent the
case from exceeding normal design temperatures
CHEMICAL SEALS
Chemical seals or diaphragm protectors can be
provided with most pressure sensors. These components
serve the following functions:
1. They avoid freezing, gelling, or settling out of the process
fluid in the sensing line due to temperature changes.
2. They prevent poisonous, noxious, radioactive, or
corrosive process materials from entering the pressure
sensor.
3. They prevent slurries or viscous polymers from entering,
plugging the detector element.
VALVE MANIFOLDS
 Valve manifolds serve to simplify periodic calibration of
pressure instruments. They can also allow the calibration,
and even instrument replacement, during continued
operation. Because the process fluids may be toxic,
corrosive, radioactive, or otherwise noxious to personnel
or the environment, it is necessary to protect against the
release of these fluids during calibration.
A three-valve manifold, such as that shown by the solid
lines in Figure may be used to serve this purpose. Valve P is
used to isolate the process, D is the drain valve which
discharges the process fluid from the instrument to a safe
containment, and T can be used to flush any trapped fluid
to the drain and to apply the calibration or test pressure.
When applied to each side of a differential pressure
instrument, as shown by PH, DH, TH, and the
dashed lines, a bypass valve, B, is usually added. This can
result in a seven-valve manifold. Proper operation of the
valves allows verification of the instrument zero at actual
operating pressure.

Pressure transmitters
In the process industries, it is often necessary to
transmit the measurement signal from a sensor over a
substantial distance so that it can be used to implement a
control function or can be combined with other
measurement signals in a more complex scheme.
Pneumatic motion-balance transmitter
 Figure shows the arrangement of a typical pneumatic
motion-balance transmitter in which the sensor is a spiral
Bourdon tube. Changes in the measured variable, which
could be pressure or, in the case of a filled thermal system,
temperature, cause the free end of the Bourdon tube to
move. This movement is transmitted via a linkage to the
lever that pivots about the axis A.
The free end of this lever bears on a second lever that is
pivoted at its center so that the movement is thus
transmitted to a third lever that is free to pivot about the
axis C. The initial movement is transferred to the flapper
of the flapper/nozzle system. If, as a result, the gap
between the flapper and nozzle is increased, the nozzle
back-pressure falls, which in turn causes the output
pressure from the control relay to fall.
 As this pressure is applied to the bellows, the change
causes the lever pivoted about axis B to retract so that the
lever pivoted around axis C moves the flapper toward the
nozzle. This causes the nozzle backpressure to rise until
equilibrium is established. For each value of the
measurement there is a definite flapper/nozzle relationship
and therefore a definite output signal.
pneumatic force-balance transmitter

This design is shown in Figure. Its basic function is to

convert a force applied to its input point into a roportional
pneumatic signal for transmission.
 The force to be measured may be generated by a
Bourdon tube, a bellows, or a diaphragm assembly and
applied to the free end of the force bar. This is pivoted at
the diaphragm seal, which in some instruments also
provides the interface between process fluid and the force-
balance mechanism so that an initial displacement arising
from the applied force appears amplified at the top of the
force bar, where it is transmitted via the flexure connector
to the top of the range rod.
If the applied force causes movement to the right, the
flapper uncovers the nozzle, with the result that the nozzle
back-pressure falls. This change is magnified by the “relay,”
the output of which is applied to the feedback bellows,
thereby producing a force that balances the force applied
initially.
 The output signal is taken from the “relay,” and by
varying the setting of the range wheel, the sensitivity or
span can be adjusted through a range of about 10 to 1. By
varying the primary element pressures from about 1.3 kPa
to 85 Mpa, differential pressures from 1 kPa to 14 MPa may
be measured.
Torque Tube Sensors
In these instruments, torque tubes are subjected to
torsion that is proportional to the force (or movement)
developed by the sensing element. In pressure
instruments, a Bourdon or bellows element produces a
linear movement proportional to pressure. In differential
pressure units, a diaphragm element produces a linear
movement as illustrated in Figure
 This movement is applied to the torque tube lever arm,
which causes an angular displacement of the output shaft.
This shaft rotation becomes the input of a motion
transmitter that provides an electronic or pneumatic
output signal.
Current to Pressure Transducer (I/P)
A “current to pressure” transducer (I/P) converts an
analog signal (4 to 20 mA) to a proportional linear
pneumatic output (3 to 15 psig). Its purpose is to translate
the analog output from a control system into a precise,
repeatable pressure value to control pneumatic
actuators/operators, pneumatic valves, dampers, vanes,
etc.
 The I/P converter provides a reliable, repeatable,
accurate means of converting an electrical signal into
pneumatic pressure in many control systems. The I/P
onverter uses an electromagnetic force balance principle to
change electrical signals into pneumatic signals.
 When input current signal is applied, Electromagnet
gets activated. If the current is more, then the power of
magnet will get increased. The Flapper of the Flapper-
Nozzle instrument is connected to Pivot so that it can
move up and down and a magnetic material was attached
to other end of flapper and it is kept near the
electromagnet.
As the magnet gets activated. the flapper moves
towards the electromagnet and the nozzle gets closed to
some extent. So the some part of 20 P.S.I supplied will
escape through nozzle and remaining pressure will come as
output.
.
 If the current signal is high, then power of the magnet
will increase, then flapper will move closer to the nozzle,
so less pressure will escape through nozzle and output
pressure increases In this way the output pressure will be
proportional to the input current. For the input current of
4 – 20 mA we can get the output pressure of 3 – 15 P.S.I

P/I converter- pressure to current converter

P/I converter or Pneumatic pressure-to-Current is a
transducer.It converts pressure input to a current in mili
ampere range.